Targeting the ACE2 and Apelin Pathways Are Novel Therapies for Heart Failure: Opportunities and Challenges

Figure 2

Diverse effects of apelin on cardiovascular system. Black arrows, effects of apelin on various targets; Green arrows and red bars, favorable stimulatory and inhibitory effects of apelin on cardiovascular system respectively; AAA: abdominal aorta aneurysm; AF: atrial fibrillation; Akt: protein kinase B; AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; BMP: bone morphogenetic protein; CHOP: CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous protein; eNOS: endothelial synthase; hs-CRP: high sensitivity C-reactive protein; ER-stress: endoplasmic reticulum stress; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; HTN: hypertension; I/R: ischemia reperfusion; IL-6: interleukin 6; JNK: C-jun-N-terminal kinase; MCSF: macrophage colony stimulating factor; MCP-1: monocyte cheomattractant protein 1; NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NO: nitric oxide; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases; PKC:protein kinase C; PLC: Phospholipase-C; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase; TNFα: tumor necrosis factor.