|
Name of myokine | Affiliation | Origin of myokines | Biological action | HF-related actions | References |
|
Decorin | Proteoglycan | Skeletal muscles, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells, cardiac myocytes, and smooth muscle cells | ↓ Accumulation of ECM, ↑ cell differentiation, ↑ proliferation, and ↓ apoptosis | Downregulated in HF ↓ Cardiac hypertrophy, ↑ cardiac fibrosis | [41–49] |
Irisin | Muscle tissue-secreted peptide FNDC5 | Skeletal muscles, myocardium | ↑ Expenditure, ↑ oxidative metabolism, ↑ myoblast differentiation, ↑ glucose uptake | Downregulated in HF ↓ Tolerance to physical exercise, ↑ skeletal muscle hypotrophy | [50–71] |
Myonectin | CTRP15 | Skeletal muscles, adipose tissue | ↑ Oxidation of free fatty acid, ↑ oxidative metabolism, ↑ myoblast differentiation, ↑ glucose uptake | Downregulated in HF ↑ Skeletal muscle hypotrophy | [72–77] |
FGF-21 | FGF super family | Cardiac myocytes, pancreas, adipose tissue, liver, brain, and kidney | ↑ Glucose uptake and protein synthesis in skeletal muscle, ↓ lipolysis in WAT, ↑ browning of WAT | Downregulated in HF ↑ Skeletal muscle mass, ↓ IR, ↑ exercise tolerance | [78–94] |
Myostatin | TGF-β superfamily | Cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscles | ↑ Skeletal muscle fiber-type switches, ↓ fast myosin heavy-chain expression, ↓ differentiation of myoblasts, ↑ ubiquitin-proteasomal activity in myocytes and ILGF-PKB pathway | Upregulated in HF ↑ Skeletal muscle hypotrophy, ↑IR, ↑ autophagy, ↑ muscle weakness, ↓ exercise tolerance | [95–111, 203] |
BDNF | Neurotrophin family | Cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscles, smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, astrocytes | ↑ Myoblast proliferation, ↑ neurogenesis, ↑ angiogenesis, ↑ vascular reparation | Downregulated in HF ↑ Tolerance to physical exercise | [112–134] |
IL-8 | Cysteine-X-cysteine family of chemokines | Mononuclears, phagocytes, adipocytes, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and mesenchymal cells | ↓ Glucose disposal, ↑ IR | Upregulated in HF ↓ Skeletal muscle energy metabolism | [135–147] |
IL-15 | Pleiotropic cytokine with structural similarity with IL-2 | Cardiac myocytes, mononuclear phagocytes | Anabolic effect, ↓ oxidative stress | Downregulated in HF ↑ Tolerance to physical exercise, ↑ skeletal muscle mass, ↓ WAT, ↓ apoptosis of cardiac myocytes and myoblasts | [149–168] |
GDF-11 | TGF-β super family | Skeletal muscle, neural stem cells, and cardiac myocytes | ↓ Differentiation of myoblasts, angiogenesis, and neovascularization | Downregulated in HF ↓ Physical endurance, ↑ skeletal muscle hypotrophy and weakness | [169–178] |
Osteonectin | SPARC protein | Cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscles, adipose tissue, bones, mucosa, vasculature, kidney, liver | Potential mediator of collagen deposition and extracellular matrix remodeling | Upregulated in HF Predictor of poor HF outcomes, ↑ cardiac contractility and reparation at early stage, ↓ cardiac myocyte survival and vascular integrity at late stage | [179–196] |
|