Gender Differences in Depression in the General Population of Indonesia: Confounding Effects
Table 3
Multivariate analysis of gender differences in overall and four-factor depression symptoms.
Variables
B (SE)
OR (95% CI)
Overall symptoms
Adj. for cultural orientationa
−0.002 (0.013)
0.998 (0.973–1.024)
Adj. for cultural stereotypesb
0.075 (0.023)
1.077 (1.031–1.126)
Adj. for cultural c
−0.442 (0.101)
0.643 (0.527–0.783)
a,;b,;c,
Four factors
Adj. for cultural orientation
Depressed affect
0.003 (0.047)
1.004 (0.916–1.099)
Positive affect
−0.008 (0.038)
0.992 (0.921–1.068)
Somatic and retarded activity
0.022 (0.055)
1.021 (0.917–1.139)
Interpersonal
−0.095 (0.081)
0.910 (0.777–1.065)
,
Adj. for cultural stereotypes
Depressed affect
0.171 (0.066)
1.186 (1.043–1.350)
Positive affect
−0.004 (0.039)
0.996 (0.922–1.076)
Somatic and retarded activity
0.118 (0.063)
1.125 (0.994–1.274)
Interpersonal
0.105 (0.143)
1.110 (0.839–1.470)
,
Adj. for cultural
Depressed affect
−0.607 (0.176)
0.545 (0.386–0.769)
Positive affect
−0.207 (0.154)
0.813 (0.601–1.100)
Somatic and retarded activity
−0.639 (0.282)
0.528 (0.304–0.918)
Interpersonal
−0.294 (0.129)
0.745 (0.579–0.960)
,
Items on the four factors
Depressed affect
Blues
0.200 (0.148)
1.221 (0.913–1.634)
Depressed
0.321 (0.167)
1.379 (0.993–1.915)
Failure
0.189 (0.189)
1.208 (0.833–1.753)
Fearful
−0.251 (0.181)
0.788 (0.546–1.110)
Lonely
0.381 (0.148)
1.464 (1.083–1.978)
Sad
−0.258 (0.180)
0.773 (0.534–1.118)
Positive affect
Good
−0.017 (0.122)
0.983 (0.774–1.248)
Hopeful
0.200 (0.126)
1.221 (0.955–1.562)
Happy
−0.096 (0.153)
0.908 (0.674–1.225)
Enjoy
−0.191 (0.154)
0.826 (0.611–1.116)
Somatic and retarded activity
Bothered
−0.240 (0.153)
0.787 (0.583–1.061)
Appetite
0.204 (0.148)
1.226 (0.916–1.640)
Mind
0.204 (0.133)
1.227 (0.945–1.593)
Effort
0.059 (0.136)
1.061 (0.812–1.386)
Sleep
0.293 (0.153)
1.340 (0.994–1.808)
Talk
0.248 (0.135)
1.281 (0.983–1.670)
Interpersonal
Dislike
0.224 (0.158)
1.251 (0.918–1.248)
3-item stereotypes
Crying
−0.547 (0.178)
0.597 (0.404–0.828)
Get going
−0.890 (0.296)
0.411 (0.230–0.733)
Unfriendly
−0.290 (0.128)
0.748 (0.581–0.963)
Cultural orientation
Horizontal individualism (HI)
−0.039 (0.018)
0.962 (0.928–0.996)
Vertical individualism (VI)
0.026 (0.019)
1.025 (0.985–1.065)
Horizontal collectivism (HC)
0.062 (0.025)
1.063 (1.012–1.116)
Vertical collectivism (VC)
−0.078 (0.025)
0.926 (0.883–0.971)
,
Reference category: women. Note: three items that seemed to indicate stereotypical symptoms were grouped as 3-item stereotypes. Adjusting for 3-item stereotypes and 17 items, respectively, means controlling/not controlling for mean stereotypical symptom variances in total depression scores. The scores on the four factors were not analyzed separately. Loneliness symptoms were not significant after excluding 3-item stereotypes from the analysis. HI, HC, and VC were significant in all adjusted models with no substantial change in OR (their respective results are shown at the bottom of the table). All analyses controlled for demographic confounding. The omnibus test was significant for all models (). Goodness of fit was measured using the AIC and BIC. Abbreviations: Adj.: adjusted; B: beta coefficient; SE: standard error; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; AIC: Akaike information criterion; BIC: Bayesian information criterion. ...
