|
| Compounds | Target/mechanisms | References |
|
| EGb 761 | Reduction of the apoptotic cell death | [44–46] |
| Reduction of Fas mRNA | [57, 95] |
| Stabilization of mitochondrial transmembrane potential | [49–51] |
| Enhancement of energy metabolism | [61] |
| Increase of the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 protein | [57–59, 62, 95] |
| Increase of mRNA of proapoptotic genes such as Bax and Bcl-xs and caspases-7, -8, and -12 | [57, 62, 95] |
| Inhibition of cyt c release and activation of Apaf-1 | [54, 55] |
| Reduction of caspase-9 and -3 activities | [51, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66] |
| Prevention of nuclear DNA fragmentation | [56, 60, 66, 83] |
| Inhibition of the production of cytokines, including TNFα, IL-2, IL-4, IFN-, and PGE2 | [167] |
| Free radical scavenging activity | [50, 79–84] |
| Increase of Mn-SOD, GPx, GCLC, GST-P1, and NQO1 mRNA and protein | [101–105, 111] |
| Induction of Nrf2 nuclear translocation by the increase of the degradation of Keap1 | [111, 112] |
| Induction of CREB phosphorylation via activation of Akt, releasing BDNF | [107, 116] |
| Activation of SIRT1 | [151] |
| Downregulation of JNK/AP-1 signaling pathway | [164, 165] |
| Suppression of the activation of p53 | [55] |
|
| Flavone fraction |
|
| Quercetin | Increase of cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis | [79–82] |
| Free radical scavenging activity | [82, 84] |
| Inhibition of TNF transcription | [167] |
| Upregulation of HO-1 via the MAPKs/Nrf-2 pathway | [110] |
| Induction of nuclear translocation of Nrf 2 | [110] |
| Up-regulation of the CREB-BDNF pathway | [120] |
| Decrease in IkBβ phosphorylation | [152] |
| Inhibition of phosphorylation and activation of JNK and suppression of AP-1-DNA binding | [169] |
| Inhibition of ERK activation | [85] |
|
| Kaempferol | Inhibition of apoptosis | [79–82, 184–188] |
| Increase of Bcl-2 protein and decrease of Bax protein. | [184–188] |
| Inhibition of cyt c release | [187, 188] |
| Inhibition of caspase-3 activity and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation | [184, 187, 188] |
| Free radical scavenging activity | [82, 84, 185, 186] |
| Inhibition of the ascorbate-dependent NADH oxidase | [185] |
| Induction of GCLC expression and increase of glutathione level | [187] |
| Up-regulation of HO-1 via the JNK/Nrf-2 pathway | [187] |
| Suppression of p53 activation | [188] |
| Inhibition of NF-kB p65 protein | [189] |
|
| Isorhamnetin | Prevention of cell death and suppression of apoptosis | [190] |
| Up-regulation of Bcl-2-related genes | [190] |
| Down-regulation of the BH3 only and Bax-like-related genes | [190] |
| Inhibition of cyt c release from the mitochondria into the cytosol | [190] |
| Inactivation of caspases-3 and -9 and cleavage of PARP | [190] |
| Attenuation of DNA fragmentation | [190] |
| ROS-scavenging effect | [82, 84, 190] |
| Inactivation of the ERK pathway | [190] |
| Suppression of p53 activation | [190] |
|
| Terpenoid fraction |
|
| Ginkgolides | Increase of cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis | [90, 91] |
| Free radical scavenging activity | [85–87] |
| Decrease of the release of LDH, TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6 | [90, 91, 154] |
| Increase of the activation of the p42/p44 (ERK) MAPK pathway | [137] |
| Increase of mRNA and protein levels of HIF-1α | [137] |
| Inhibition of the NIK/IKKα/IkB/NF-kB signaling pathway | [157] |
| Decreases of c-fos and c-jun mRNA expression | [85] |
|
| Bilobalides | Inhibition of apoptosis | [177] |
| Up-regulation of the subunit III of cytochrome C-oxidase and subunit ND1 of NADH dehydrogenase | [90, 91] |
| Decrease of c-myc, p53, and Bax proteins | [177] |
| Inhibition of caspase-3 activity | [177] |
| Suppression of p65 NF-kB protein | [153] |
| Up-regulation of the CREB-BDNF pathway | [120] |
|
