Potential Roles of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni in Abrogating Insulin Resistance and Diabetes: A Review

Table 1

Summarised effects based on several factors involved in the mechanisms of insulin resistance and insulin signalling, including previous figures.

Factor	Effects	References
FFA	↑FFA, ↑FFA oxidation, ↑ROS, ↓glucose uptake, ↑IR	[14, 15, 18]
TNF-𝛼	↑TNF-𝛼, ↓tyr phosphorylation of IRS1, ↓glucose uptake, ↑IR	[22]
PPAR𝛾	↑PPAR𝛾, ↓FFA, ↑glucose uptake, ↓IR	[30]
JNK and IKK𝛽	↑TNF-𝛼, ↑JNK, ↑IKK𝛽, ↑ser phosphorylation of IRS1, ↓tyr phosphorylation of IRS1, ↓glucose uptake, ↑IR	[12, 21]

FFA: free fatty acid; ROS: reactive oxygen species; IR: insulin resistance; TNF-𝛼: tumour necrosis factor 𝛼; tyr: tyrosine; IRS1: insulin receptor substrate 1; PPAR𝛾: peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor 𝛾; JNK: c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase; IKK𝛽: inhibitor of nuclear factor 𝜅B kinase 𝛽; ser: serine.