Propolis: A Complex Natural Product with a Plethora of Biological Activities That Can Be Explored for Drug Development

Table 1

Characteristic compounds of propolis from different geographic origins and respective plant source.

Geographic origin	Plant source	Typical constituents (main components)	References
Europe, North America, New Zealand, and temperate zones of Asia	Populus spp., more predominantly P. nigra	Pinocembrin, pinobanksin, chrysin, galangin, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid, and their esters	[10, 20, 22]
Brazil
Green propolis	Baccharis spp., predominantly B. dracunculifolia	Prenylated phenylpropanoids, phenolic acids, prenylated p-coumaric acids, acetophenones, diterpenic acids, caffeoylquinic acids, kaempferide, isosakuranetin, and kaempferol	[9, 10, 32, 33]
Red propolis	Dalbergia ecastaphyllum	Formononetin, isoliquiritigenin, liquiritigenin, medicarpin, and biochanin A	[32, 34, 35]
Russia	Betula spp., more specifically B. verrucosa, B. pendula, and B. pubescens	Cinnamic acids, phenylpropanoid sesquiterpenols, acacetin, apigenin, ermanin, rhamnocitrin, kaempferide, α-acetoxybetulenol	[10, 180]
Cuba, Venezuela	Clusia spp., more specifically C. rosea and C. minor	Polyisoprenylated benzophenones, more specifically nemorosone, xanthochymol, and guttiferone E	[9, 36]
Mediterranean
Greece	Probably Conifer spp.	Flavonoids, diterpenic acids such as isocupressic, pimaric, and communic acids, isoagatholal, agathadiol, ferruginol, 8-elemene, and totarol	[24, 25]
Switzerland	P. tremula	Benzyl p-coumarate, benzyl ferulate, and phenolic glycerides like dicoumaroyl acetyl glycerol, diferuloyl acetyl glycerol, feruloyl coumaroyl acetyl glycerol, and caffeoyl coumaroyl acetyl glycerol	[26]
Malta	Ferula spp., most probably Ferula communis	Diterpenic acids such as isocupressic, communic, pimaric, and imbricatoloic acid, together with totarol and 13-epitorulosal	[27]
Turkey	Populus spp., Eucalyptus spp.,  and Castanea sativa	Pinocembrin, pinobanksin and its acetate, prenyl esters of caffeic acid, ferulic acids, diterpenic acids like pimaric, isopimaric, abietic, dihydroabietic acids, cinnamyl cinnamate, and ethyl oleate, aromatic acid esters such as benzyl cinnamate, benzenedicarboxylic acid and flavanols such as benzopyran and chrysin	[28–30]
Algeria	Populus spp.; Cistus spp.	Pinocembrin, pinobanksin and its acetate, chrysin, apigenin, pectolinarigenin, pilosin, ladanein, galangin, naringenin, tectochrysin, methoxychrysin, prenyl esters of caffeic acids, ferulic acids, diterpenic acids like hydroxyditerpenic acid, labdane, and clerodane	[28, 31]
Australia
Apis mellifera	Acacia paradoxa	Xanthorrhoeol, pterostilbene, sakuranetin, pinostrobin, stilbenes, prenylated tetrahydroxystilbenes, prenylated cinnamic acids, flavanones, flavonols, chalcones	[39–42, 181]
Stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria	C. torelliana trees  (fruit resins)
Africa
Nigeria	Probably M. schweinfurthii	Isoflavonoids, prenylated isoflavonoids, and stilbenoids	[54]
Kenya		Triterpenes, arylnaphtalene lignans such as tetrahydrojusticidin B and 6-methoxydiphyllin, geranyl stilbenes, and geranylflavon macarangin	[50]
Cameroon; Congo		Triterpenes, derivatives of amyrin and lupeol and diprenyl flavonoids	[53]
Oman	Azadirachta indica, Acacia spp.,  and Mangifera indica	Triterpenes, prenylated flavanones such as 7-O-methyl-8-prenylnaringenin, 3′,8-diprenylnaringenin, and 8-prenyl-5,7-dihydroxy-3′-(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-4′-methoxyflavanone, chalcones, cardanol, cardols, and anacardic acids	[51]
Ethiopia	Probably Acacia spp.	Triterpenoids such as α- and β-amyrins, α- and β-amyryl acetates, lupeol, and α- and β-lupeyl acetates	[52]
Thailand	Styrax trees	Phenylallylflavanone, (E)-cinnamyl-(E)-cinnamylidenate	[48]
The Pacific region
Okinawa, Hawaii, and Taiwan	Macaranga tanarius	Prenylflavonoids, more specifically isonymphaeol-B, nymphaeol-A, nymphaeol-B, nymphaeol-C, propolins, 3′-geranyl-naringenin	[43–45]
Indonesia, Myanmar	Mangifera indica	Alk(en)ylresorcinols, cycloartane-type triterpenes, cycloartanes, and prenylated flavanones	[46, 47]
Canary Islands	Unknown	Furofuran lignans	[49, 182]