Herbal Medicines Targeting the Improved β-Cell Functions and β-Cell Regeneration for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus

Figure 8

Summary of mechanisms by which natural products improve β-cell function and regeneration. TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; NF-κB, nuclear factor κB; IkB, inhibitor of NF-κB; IKK, IκB kinase; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; AMP, adenosine monophosphate; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; FOXO-1, forkhead box O1; GLUT-2, glucose transporter-2; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1; IR, insulin receptor; IRS-2, insulin receptor substrate-2; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PDK, phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase; Akt, protein kinase B; ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylate; CXCL-12, C-X-C motif chemokine 12; ERK 1/2, Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2; PKA, protein kinase A; cAMP, cyclic AMP; GLP-1R, Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; PDX-1, pancreatic duodenal homeobox-1; MafA, v-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene family protein A; INS-1, insulin-1; INS-2, insulin-2; GK, glucokinase; IGF-2, insulin-like growth fator-2; Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma-2; Bax, Bcl-2-associated X, caspase-3, cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-3.