Relationship between Low Vegetable Consumption, Increased High-Sensitive C-Reactive Protein Level, and Cardiometabolic Risk in Korean Adults with Tae-Eumin: A Cross-Sectional Study

Table 1

Group differences in general characteristics, CVDs risk factors and dietary intakes of the subjects according to constitution type† with high-sensitive CRP level‡.

hs-CRP level, mg/L		hs-CRP level <3.0 mg/L (n = 1823)		hs-CRP level ≥3.0 mg/L (n = 160)		value
Characteristics		TE (n = 896)	Non-TE (n = 927)	TE (n = 112)	Non-TE (n = 48)
Age (years), (mean ± SE)		44.2 ± 0.2^a	44.8 ± 0.2^a	42.3 ± 0.6^b	43.7 ± 1.0^ab	0.001
30–44 years (n, %)		447 (49.9)	448 (48.3)	71 (63.4)	28 (58.3)	0.016
45–55 years		274 (50.1)	385 (51.7)	41 (36.6)	20 (41.7)
Sex (%)
Male		339 (37.8)	222 (23.9)	31 (27.7)	13 (27.1)	<0.0001
Female		557 (62.2)	705 (76.1)	81 (72.3)	35 (72.9)
Education (%)						0.977
High school lower levels		318 (35.7)	330 (35.7)	42 (37.8)	17 (36.2)
College and higher levels		572 (64.3)	594 (64.3)	69 (62.2)	30 (63.8)
Household income^1 (%)						0.977
Low		170 (19.1)	157 (17.2)	24 (21.4)	7 (14.6)
Middle		652 (73.2)	662 (72.4)	77 (68.8)	35 (72.9)
High		69 (7.7)	96 (10.5)	11 (9.8)	6 (12.5)
Smoking (%)						0.030
No		777 (86.7)	824 (88.9)	93 (83.0)	47 (97.9)
Yes		119 (13.3)	103 (11.1)	19 (17.0)	1 (2.1)
Alcohol consumption (%)						0.125
No		195 (35.3)	320 (41.4)	93 (83.0)	47 (97.9)
Yes		358 (64.7)	452 (58.6)	19 (17.0)	1 (2.1)
Physical activity^2 (%)
Low		275 (30.7)	274 (29.6)	23 (20.5)	18 (37.5)	0.067
Moderate		270 (30.1)	297 (32.0)	45 (40.2)	19 (39.6)
High		351 (39.2)	356 (38.4)	44 (39.3)	11 (22.9)
BMI, kg/m^2§		26.7 ± 0.1^b	22.2 ± 0.1^c	29.3 ± 0.2^a	22.5 ± 0.4^c	<0.0001
CVDs risk factors (mean ± SE)^§
WC, cm		88.6 ± 0.2^b	78.6 ± 0.2^c	94.5 ± 0.5^a	79.8 ± 1.0^c	<0.0001
Systolic BP, mmHg		121.3 ± 0.5^b	115.6 ± 0.5^c	124.7 ± 1.4^a	115.7 ± 2.0^c	<0.0001
Diastolic BP, mmHg		77.4 ± 0.5^a	73.0 ± 0.4^b	78.7 ± 1.0^a	72.4 ± 1.6^b	<0.0001
Fasting plasma glucose, mmol/L		86.6 ± 0.5^a	83.0 ± 0.6^b	89.6 ± 1.5^a	85.6 ± 2.3^ab	<0.0001
HDL-C, mmol/L		52.2 ± 0.4^b	58.7 ± 0.4^a	48.2 ± 1.2^c	52.8 ± 1.8^bc	<0.0001
TG, mmol/L		156.7 ± 3.2^ab	130.2 ± 3.4^c	177.3 ± 9.1^a	129.9 ± 13.8^bc	<0.0001
hs-CRP level, mg/L		0.9 ± 0.1^c	0.6 ± 0.1^d	6.6 ± 0.2^b	8.4 ± 0.3^a	<0.0001
≥2 concurrent CVDs risk factors		442 (49.3)	143 (15.4)	77 (68.8)	10 (20.8)	<0.0001
Energy (kcal/d)^3
Men		2238.5 ± 35.9	2283.6 ± 44.5	2244.5 ± 118.8	2409.4 ± 183.7	0.724
Women		2082.2 ± 29.4	2038.8 ± 26.2	2117.0 ± 77.4	2253.8 ± 117.4	0.211
Nutrients
Carbohydrates (g)		314.9 ± 7.3	321.0 ± 4.9	313.1 ± 5.3	339.9 ± 8.1	0.828
Fat (g)		53.9 ± 1.7	53.9 ± 1.1	51.6 ± 1.0	53.8 ± 1.7	0.418
Protein (g)		72.3 ± 1.9	72.5 ± 1.2	69.6 ± 1.2	73.6 ± 1.9	0.636
C : F : P (%)		59.8 : 22.7 : 13.6	59.8 : 22.5 : 13.5	60.6 : 22.5 : 13.4	60.9 : 21.9 : 13.4	N/S
Food groups (g/d)^4§§
White rice		191.7 ± 2.6	193.4 ± 2.7	183.7 ± 7.3	205.4 ± 11.1	0.385
Wholegrains		78.5 ± 2.7	74.9 ± 2.8	88.7 ± 7.6	84.5 ± 11.0	0.290
Noodles and bread		102.4 ± 3.1	108.3 ± 3.2	96.8 ± 8.8	91.3 ± 13.3	0.284
Potatoes and sweet potatoes		46.4 ± 2.4	45.9 ± 2.5	37.5 ± 6.9	48.4 ± 10.5	0.662
Beans and tofu		28.5 ± 1.0	26.9 ± 1.0	28.0 ± 2.8	25.0 ± 4.2	0.622
Fish		6.5 ± 0.3	6.3 ± 0.3	5.0 ± 0.8	6.5 ± 1.1	0.285
Beef pork		60.1 ± 1.9	57.4 ± 2.0	56.1 ± 5.3	58.8 ± 8.1	0.739
Poultry		34.7 ± 1.4	31.9 ± 1.5	28.7 ± 4.0	31.1 ± 6.1	0.347
Eggs		36.7 ± 1.2	34.9 ± 1.3	33.8 ± 3.4	29.7 ± 5.2	0.445
Vegetables and mushrooms		54.3 ± 1.1^a	52.5 ± 1.1^ab	45.1 ± 3.1^b	57.6 ± 4.7^ab	0.025
Fruits		84.7 ± 3.4	91.0 ± 3.5	73.5 ± 9.5	77.3 ± 14.2	0.214
Milk and yogurt		101.4 ± 3.8	102.3 ± 4.0	119.3 ± 10.9	100.3 ± 16.4	0.481
Coffee and Tea		125.2 ± 3.6	123.4 ± 3.7	136.5 ± 9.9	122.4 ± 15.4	0.659
Beer and soju		45.3 ± 2.6	53.4 ± 2.7	47.6 ± 7.3	39.2 ± 10.7	0.111
Hamburger and pizza		88.4 ± 4.5	88.4 ± 4.5	95.8 ± 12.6	94.1 ± 19.7	0.771

^†Constitution type was categorized into two groups as TE (Tae-eumin) and non-TE (So-eumin and So-yangin). ^‡High-sensitive CRP levels were categorized into two different groups: hs-CRP level < 3.0 mg/L and hs-CRP level ≥ 3.0 mg/L. ¹Monthly household income was divided into 3 groups: low (> 3,000,000 won), middle (3,000,000–7,000,000 won), and high (7,000,000 won ≤). ²Physical activity: total MET minutes per week: low (<600 MET-min/wk); moderate (600–1,500 MET-min/wk); and high (1,500 MET-min/wk). values were obtained from Rao-Scott chi-square tests for categorical variables and Bonferroni multiple comparison of one-way analysis of variance and analysis of covariance (ANOVA). ^aThe different letters indicate statistically significant differences , analyzed using ANCOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparision test. ^§Least square means-sq adjusted for age and sex. CVDs, cardiovascular diseases; hs-CRP, high-sensitive C-reactive protein; BMI, body mass index; WC, waist circumference; BP, blood pulse; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TG, triglycerides. ³Adjusted age only. ^§§Least square means-sq adjusted for age, sex, and energy intake (kcal). ⁴Food groups were surveyed using short-form of the food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) which includes grains (white rice, wholegrains, noodles bread, potatoes, and sweet potatoes) proteins (bean, tofu, fish, beef, pork, poultry, and eggs); vegetables (cabbage, radish, carrot, zucchini, and mushrooms); fruits (apples, banana, persimon, strawberries, and pear); dairy (milk and yogurt); drink (coffee and tea); alcohol (beer and soju); fast foods (hamburger and pizza).