Candidate Anti-COVID-19 Medicinal Plants from Ethiopia: A Review of Plants Traditionally Used to Treat Viral Diseases

Table 1

The medicinal plants used to treat viral diseases in different parts of Ethiopia.

No.	Scientific name	Family	Local name	Parts used and preparation method	RA	DT	Ref.
1	Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth.	Fabaceae	Memona (Tig)	Crush the bark and apply on the affected part	Dermal	H. zoster	[35]
2	Acacia etbaica Schweinf.	Fabaceae	Seraw (Amh)	Crushed bark	Oral	Wart	[36]
3	Acacia nigra	Fabaceae	Tikur grar (Amh)	Crush or pound and squeeze the leaf and apply on allergic skin	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
4	Acanthus polystachyus	Acanthaceae	Kucheshile (Amh)	Crush the root and pound and give with water	Oral	Rabies	[36, 38]
5	Acokanthera schimperi (A. DC.) Schweinf.	Apocynaceae	Meriz (Amh)	Roots are burned on fire and fumigated	Dermal	Hepatitis	[38, 39]
6	Allium sativum	Alliaceae	Nechsenkret (Amh)	(i) Crushed rhizomes are pounded and eaten with honey; (ii) Crush the bulb and drink with water	Oral	Influenza virus	[36, 38]
				(i) Bulb is pounded and mixed with meat soup and used as a drink; (ii) Boiled bulb vapor is inhaled orally and nasally; (iii) Cloves ground up and mixed with honey, take first thing in the morning on an empty stomach	(i) Oral; (ii) Oral and nasal; (iii) Oral	C. cold	[40–43]
7	Allium cepa	Alliaceae	QeY shikurt (Amh)	Eat the part of the bulb with other foods	Oral	Rabies	[35]
				Crush the bulb and drink with water	Oral	HSV	[44]
8	Aloe macrocarpa Tod.	Aloaceae	Eret (Amh)	Leaf of A. macrocarpa is powdered and mixed with honey	Oral	Wart	[45]
9	Amaranthus hybridus Linn.	Amaranthaceae	Tenbelel (Amh)	Crush the fruit and leaf of Amaranthus hybridus	Oral	Hepatitis	[36]
10	Argemone mexicana L.	Papaveraceae	Yahyaeshoh (Amh)	(i) Crush the leaf; (ii) Crush the root and give with water	Oral	Influenza, Rabies	[36, 38]
11	Artemisia afra Jack. ex Willd. and Artemisia annua L.	Asteraceae	Chikugn (Amh)	Grind leaves and apply topically	Dermal	Smallpox	[40]
				Crushed and powdered leaf	Nasal, oral	Influenza	[36]
12	Azadirachta indica. A. Juss.	Meliaceae	Neem (Amh)	Leaves	Oral	HIV-1	[46]
13	Bersama abyssinica Boyle	Melianthaceae	Azamer (Amh)	Bark/leaves/roots		Rabies, HIV-1	[47]
14	Brassica carinata A. Br. Herb	Brassicaceae	Gomen (Amh)	The dried leaf was powdered and mixed with water then drunk	Oral	C. cold	[48]
15	Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill	Simaroubaceae	Waginos (Aballo)(Amh)	Fresh parts of the stem are boiled in water and the steam is inhaled through the mouth and nose	Oral & nasal	Hepatitis	[49]
				Squeeze the whole part of the plant and bake with teff flour and give for 3 days (together with Croton macrostachyus and Rumexnervosus)	Oral	Rabies	[50]
16	Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth.	Fabaceae	Digita (Amh)	Crush the seeds of Calpurnia aurea and mix with water	Orally	Rabies	[51]
17	Camellia sinensis	Theaceae	Shay kitel (Amh)	Drink the leaves with tea	Oral	HBV, HCV, influenza, HIV, BCV	[52, 53]
18	Capsicum annuum L.	Solanaceae	Berbere (Amh)	Pounded being mixed with the leaf of V. sinaiticum, O. quadripartita, C. aurea (concoction), then bandage on the wound	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
19	Carica papaya L.	Caricaceae	Papaya (Amh)	Fresh fruit and leaf pounded and crushed, add water	Oral	H. zoster,	[37, 44]
20	Carissa edulis Vahl.	Apocynaceae	Agam (Amh)	The root is powdered and mixed with food	Oral	Rabies	[54]
21	Cayratia ibuensis (Hook.f.) Suess.	Vitaceae	Udusalim Rumiyi (Oro)	The roots crushed and pounded, then boiled and drink 2-3 cups of coffee in the morning	5–7 of tea spoons drink (oral)	Hepatitis	[55]
22	Centella asiatica L.	Apiaceae	Yeait joro (Amh)	A quarter of a finger-sized root is ground, mixed with water, filtered, and taken orally	Oral	Rabies	[39]
23	Citrus aurantium L.	Rutaceae	Bahir Lome (Amh)	Squeezing fruit (juice)	Oral	C. cold	[43]
24	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.	Rutaceae	Lome (Amh)	Squeezed fruit (juice)	Oral	C. cold	[36]
25	Clematis hirsute Perr. & Guill.	Ranunculaceae	Hareg (Tig)	Burn leaves in oven with leaves of Dodonaea angustifolia, grind, mix with butter and apply on the affected part.	Dermal	H. zoster	[35]
26	Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach.	Euphorbiaceae	Tewshealalito (Tig) Fiyle feji (Amh)	Dry and mix leaves with dried leaves of Calpurnia aurea and Datura stramonium, grind, add butter, and spread the paste on the affected part; (i) Crush the root and boiled with water (Decoction)	Dermal; Oral	H. zoster, hepatitis	[35, 37]
27	Coffea arabica L.	Rubiaceae	Bunna (Amh)	Boil the leaf, decant then drink the juice	Oral	C. cold	[38]
28	Combretum collinum	Combretaceae	Abalo (Amh)	The seed of Combretum collinum with the seed of Solanumda syphyllum are crushed together powdered, mixed with “tella” and drunk for 3 days	Oral	Rabies	[50]
29	Coriandrum sativum	Apiaceae	Dimblal (Amh)	—	—	Potential anti-COVID-19	[56]
30	Cordia africana	Boraginaceae	Wanza (Amh)	Boiled with sorghum (decoction) and drinking	Oral	Hepatitis	[37]
31	Crinum abyscinicum Hochst. ex A. Rich.	Amaryllidaceae	Yejib shinkurt (Amh)	Bulb of Crinum abyscinicum is used to treat rabies	Oral	Rabies	[57]
32	Crotalaria incana L.	Fabaceae	Atarii Kuruphee (Oro)	Sap from the whole part of the plant is directly creamed on affected area	Dermal	Hepatitis	[41]
33	Croton macrostachyus Del.	Euphorbiaceae	Bisana (Amh)	(i) Shoots are crushed with water, filtered and the solution is taken orally (for hepatitis); (ii) The fresh root bark is crushed, pounded, mixed with water, and given orally (for rabies)	Oral	Hepatitis, rabies	[39, 44, 51]
34	Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich.	Cucurbitaceae	Yemidir Embuay (Amh)	Crushed fresh root with water fermented for 3 days is taken with honey early morning before breakfast orally until the cure	Oral	Rabies	[49]
35	Cucurbita pepo L.	Cucurbitaceae	Hamham (Tig)	Fresh leaf boiled with water and given orally	Oral	Influenza	[44]
36	Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Erd (Amh)	—	—	HBV, HCV	[58]
37	Cussonia ostinii Chiov.	Araliaceae	Harfattu (Oro)	Bark (root) of Cussonia ostinii, leaf Asplenium monathes and the leaf of Calpurnia subdecandra were pounded together, and 2 cups were given to cattle	Orally	Hepatitis	[41]
38	Cyphostemma adenocaula (A. Rich.)	Vitaceae	Asserkush (Amh)	The root was boiled with milk and filtered and the filtrate was taken in an empty stomach full of a coffee cup daily for 3 consecutive days	Orally	Rabies	[50]
39	Datura stramonium L.	Solanaceae	Atsefaris (Amh)	Leafy stem is squeezed and its drop prepared with butter	Dermal	Wart	[35]
				Leafy stem is squeezed and its drop prepared with butter	Dermal cream	Wart	[36]
				Crushed and homogenized leaves drunk with water	Oral	Rabies	[50, 59]
				Dried leaves of the plant and Calpurnia aurea and Clutia abyssinica are ground, mix powder with butter, and apply on the affected part	Dermal	H. zoster	[35]
40	Diplolophium africanum Turcz.	Apiaceae	Zegerawta (Amh)	Pound the root and give with water	Orally	Rabies	[38]
41	Dipsacus pinnatifidus Steud. ex A. Rich.	Dipsacaceae	Fereze ng/kelem (Amh)	Pound the leaf and give with water	Nasal	Rabies	[38]
42	Dodonaea angustifolia L.f.	Sapindaceae	Kitkita (Amh)	Dry the leaf of the plant alone or mix with the leaf of Clematis hirsuta on a hot stove, grind, add butter and rub the affected part	Dermal	H. zoster	[35]
43	Dorstenia barnimiana Schweinf.	Moraceae	Work Bemeda (Amh)	Root powder with shimmed milk or nug is taken orally early morning until a cure	Orally	Rabies	[49]
				Root powder with shimmed milk or nug is taken orally early morning until a cure	Orally	Hepatitis	[49]
44	Dregea rubicunda Schum.	Asclepiadaceae	Kuandira (Amh)	Crush and drink with milk	Orally	Rabies	[38]
45	Dregea schimperi (Decne.) Bullock.	Asclepiadaceae	Shanqoq (Tig)	Crush and drink the fluid	Orally	Rabies	[35]
46	Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv.	Asteraceae	Kosorru Hare (Oro)	The root of Echinops amplexicaulis is dried, powdered, and mixed with water The concoction is given to cattle	Orally	Hepatitis	[41]
47	Ekebergia capensis	Meliaceae	…	The leaf of Ekebergia capensis is crushed and add water	Orally	C. cold	[36]
48	Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	Myrtaceae	Nech bahirzaf (Amh)	Boil and fumigate with the fume	Nasal, oral, and dermal	C. cold	[36]
				(i) Leaf of Eucalyptus globulus is chopped and boiled; the steam bath is taken by humans; vapor inhaled orally and nasally; (ii) Boil Eucalyptus and Damakasse in water and inhale; (iii) Leaf of E. globulus is boiled in water	Nasal, orally	Influenza	[35, 40–42, 45]
49	Euphorbia abyssinica G.F.Gmel.	Euphorbiaceae	Kulkual (Amh)	Stems are burned on fire and fumigated	Dermal	Hepatitis	[39]
				Mix the latex of Euphorbia abyssinica with milk and drink it	Orally	Rabies	[38]
50	Ficus sycomorus L.	Moraceae	Sholla (Amh)	(i) The sap of Ficus sycomorus is creamed directly on the skin (for hepatitis); (ii)The bark of Ficus sycomorus and root of Prunus africana are powdered together and backed with teff flour and eaten (for rabies)	Dermal Oral	Hepatitis, rabies	[41, 45]
51	Ficus sp.	Moraceae	Warka (Amh)	The stem bark and the latex are mixed with Phytolacca dodecandra (leaf) and given	Oral	Rabies	[51]
52	Gnidia stenophylla Gilg.	Trymalaceae	Katarichaa (Oro)	The decoction of the root is taken with goat milk	1 teaspoon drink orally	Hepatitis	[55]
53	Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) R.Br.	Acanthaceae	Girbia (Tig)	A bunch of leaves was collected from 7 different sites, mixed with 10 tin cans of water, stored for 7 days, and washed for 7 consecutive days	Dermal	H. zoster	[60]
54	Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst.	Oleaceae	Tembelel (Amh)	Pounded being mixed with the leaf of V. sinaiticum, O. quadripartita, C. aurea, S. uliginosa, D. stramonium, and P. schmperi	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
55	Jatropha curcas L.	Euphorbiaceae	Yesudan-gulo (Amh)	Crush the seed of Jatropha curcas mixed with water	Orally	Rabies	[51]
56	Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anders	Acanthaceae	Smiza (Amh)	(i) Root and leaf of Justica schimperiana are pounded together and mixed with water and 2-3 cups of tella are used as a drink; (ii) Seed of J. Schimperiana is crushed and mixed with water and filtered; (iii) The Justicia schimperiana and Brucea antidysenterica leaves are used to treat rabies	Oral	Rabies	[36, 41, 45, 59, 61]
				Sniff unprocessed or after rubbing	Nasal	C. cold	[36]
				(i) Juice of seven shoot meristems that can be mixed with fresh water and drink a cup of the mixture; (ii) Juvenile leaf of Justicia schimperiana boiled with milk (decoction)	Orally	Hepatitis	[37, 62]
57	Laggera integrifolia Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich	Asteraceae	Gimmie (Amh)	The leaf is inhaled sometimes through the nose	Nasal (nostril)	C. cold	[63]
58	Lens culinaris Medic.	Fabaceae	Misir (Amh)	Dry seeds are ground, powder is soaked in water, and cream is smeared on the affected part	Dermal	H. zoster	[39]
59	Lippia abyssinica	Lamiaceae	Koseret (Amh)	—	Nasal	C. cold	[59]
60	Lobelia rhynchopetalum Hemsl.	Lobeliaceae	Jibara (Amh)	Roots are ground, mixed with milk, and solution drunk for five days	Orally	Rabies	[39]
61	Lycopersicon esculentum (L.) Mill.	Solanaceae	Timaatima (Oro)	Fresh fruit put in the fire and eaten when getting hot in order to get relief from the common cold	Oral	C. cold	[48]
62	Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Mango (Amh)	Bark/leaves	Oral	C. cold, HSV-1/2	[46]
63	Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak.	Fabaceae	Birbira (Amh)	Heat stick, then touch their body with hot part	Dermal	Rabies	[38]
64	Moringa borziana Mattei Mawe	Moringaceae	Tamergnaw ketel (Shiferaw) (Amh)	Leaf chewing	Chewing Oral	C. cold	[36]
65	Musa spp.	Musaceae	Muz (Amh)	—	—	SARS-CoV-2, influenza	[64, 65]
66	Myrica salicifolia Hochst. ex A. Rich.	Myricaceae	Shinet (Amh)	Crush, powder, then sniff	Nasal	C. cold	[38]
67	Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn	Solanaceae	Hawwixii (Oro)	Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn roots are pounded and mixed with cold water; 2–4 cups of tella are used as a drink	Oral	Hepatitis	[41]
68	Nicotiana tabacum	Solanaceae	Tamiba (Had)	Dry leaves are pounded and powdered, then drunk or smelled through the nose of humans	Nasal	C. cold	[43]
69	Nigella sativa	Ranunculaceae	Tikur Azmud (Amh)	Fried seeds wrapped in a piece of cloth and sniffed three times daily, wrap in small leaf, stick up nose	Orally Nasal	C. cold	[40, 62]
70	Ocimum basilicum L. Herb	Lamiaceae	Bessobla (Amh)	Fresh leaves together with the root of Aloe macrocarpa concocted together and drink the solution	Oral	Flu, CVB1	[48]
71	Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth.	Lamiaceae	Damakassie (Amh)	Crushed and mixed/concocted/with coffee and take	Orally	C. cold	[59]
				(i) Squeeze leaves and drink the juice with coffee, or apply the rubbed leaves into the nose	Nasal	Influenza and acute viral infection	[42, 66]
72	Ocimum urticifolium Roth.	Lamiaceae	Dama kesie (Amh)	Boil with tea and drink	Orally	C. cold	[38]
73	Olea europaea subsp. cuspidate	Oleaceae	Weyra (Amh)	Boiled, adding salt for the night and isolate the residue (decoction)	Orally	Hepatitis	[37]
74	Olinia rochetiana A. Juss	Oliniaceae	Noole (Sid)	The leaf is heated slightly, rubbed by the hands, and then inhaled through nostrils	Nasal	Viral common cold	[66]
75	Osyris quadripartita Decn.	Santalaceae	Keret (Amh)	Dried and pounded then 2 spoonsful powder is mixed with a cup of water, drink for 3 consecutive days	Orally	Hepatitis	[37]
				Pounded being mixed with the leaf of C. annuum, V. sinaiticum, C.aurea, J. abyssinicum (concoction)	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
76	Otostegia integrifolia Benth.	Lamiaceae	Tunjut (Amh)	Smoking and fumigating the house	Smoking, oral	C. cold	[36, 38]
77	Piper nigrum	Piperaceae	Kundo berbere (Amh)	—	—	VSV, PIV, CVB3	[67]
78	Phaseolus vulgaris	Fabaceae	Bakela (Amh)	—	—	HIV-1, RSV, and HSV-1	[68, 69]
79	Phytolacca dodecandra	Phytolaccaceae	Endod (Amh)	(i) Root is crushed and pounded, mixed with water; one-third of the tella cup is given to humans (liver problem); Phytolacca dodecandra root is crushed and pounded, mixed with water; one-third of a cup is given to humans; (ii) Dried root of Phytolacca dodecandra powder and one-two cups of domestic alcohol (malakia) are taken orally (for rabies); (iii) Chopped root and leaves mixed with honey are given orally (for rabis); (iv) Fresh root of Phytolacca dodecandra is pounded, mixed with water, one arake glass of the solution is given for 7–10 days (for humans)	Oral	(i) Liver problem (hepatitis), (ii) Rabies	[41, 42, 48, 70]
				(v) Squeeze and apply on the wounded part	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
				Juice extracted by pounded fresh root mixed with milk of similar cow and calf Roots are chewed and fluid swallowed; as an antidote, Guizotia abyssinica solution is taken orally	Orally	Rabies	[39]
				Juice of crushed fresh root taken with skimmed milk	Oral	Rabies	[44]
				Juice of crushed fresh root taken with skimmed milk	Orally	Hepatitis “wef beshita’	[49]
80	Plantago lanceolata L.	Plantaginaceae	Korxobi (Oro)	(i) The leaf is squeezed and apply on the affected dermal part; (ii) The squeezed leaf is pasted with butter and made to ointment	Dermal	Wart, herpes wounds	[54]
81	Podocarpus falcatus	Podocarpaceae	Birbirsa (Oro)	Fresh stem barks boiled and filtered and then drunk in the middle of the night for three days; dry stem bark crushed and pounded then parted on the wound	Oral	Jaundice (hepatitis) or rabies	[43]
82	Podocarpus gracilior	Podocarpaceae	Zigba (Amh)	Combined Zigba (Podocarpus gracilior) of Dokuma (Syzgium guineense, listed next) in a cold maceration; drink on an empty stomach first thing in the morning, this induces vomiting which is thought to help treat Yellelitwofe (hepatitis)	Oral	Yellelito wofe (hepatitis)	[40]
83	Polygala obtusissima Chod.	Polygalaceae	Calmala (Afa)	The fresh leaves are pounded, kept in a handkerchief, and inhaled	Inhalation (nasal)	C. cold	[71]
84	Prunus dulcis	Rosaceae	Lewuz (Amh)	Drink with tea	Oral	HSV-1/ 2	[72]
85	Rhus natalensis	Anacardiaceae	Debobosha (Amh)	Pounded being mixed with J. abyssinicum, D. stramonium, and S. nigrum (concoction); wash the entire body first and apply the remedy on the wound	Dermal	H. zoster	[37]
86	Ricinus communis L.	Euphorbiacea	Kabosimbiro (Oro)	Fresh leaves are crushed and mixed with water and one cup of tea is taken for 3 consecutive days	Orally	Rabies	[50]
				(i) The root is pounded, well-spiced, and mixed with food; (ii) Freshly pounded and squeezed leaves of Ricinus communis L. with milk for treating patients of rabies	Oral	Rabies	[54, 73]
87	Rosa abyssinica	Rosaceae	Qega (Amh)	—	Oral	Enteric coronavirus.	[74]
88	Rosmarinus officinalis	Lamiaceae	Tibs kitel (Amh)	—	—	RSV-A and B	[75]
89	Rumex abyssinicus	Polygonaceae	Mekmoko (Amh)	Root decocted, drunk or chewed	Oral	Hepatitis	[40]
90	Rumex crispus	Polygonaceae	Enbacho (Amh)	Roots chewed and juice swallowed	Oral	Hepatitis	[40]
91	Ruta chalepensis L.	Rutaceae	Tena adam (Amh)	Leaf of Ruta chalepensisis pounded with the bulb of Allium sativum mixed with soup and used as a drink	Oral	Influenza	[41]
92	Saccharum officinarum L. Herb	Poaceae	Shankora ageda (Amh)	Fresh steam is put in the fire and eaten when gets hot to get relief from the common cold	Oral	C. cold	[48]
93	Salix subserrata Willd	Salicaceae		Crushed leaves of Salix subserrata Willd. and Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) C. N. Page was also used in fresh form, mixed with water and milk, to treat rabies	Oral	Rabies	[73]
94	Sesamum indicum	Pedaliaceae	Selit (Amh)	two drops of sesame oil in each nostril each morning are suggested to prevent COVID-19	Nasal	COVID-19	CCRH, 2020
95	Schinus molle	Anacardiaceae	Selit (Amh) Kendo berberie (Amh)	Pounded Crushed Fruit	Oral	Cough (C. cold)	[36]
				Crushed fresh leaves of Schinus mole with water	Oral	H. zoster	[44]
96	Solanecio gigas (Vatke) C. Jeffrey	Asteraceae	Boz (Amh)	Leaves are collected from seven different areas, grounded with Guizotia abyssinica seeds, mixed with water and solution have taken orally	Orally	Hepatitis	[39]
97	Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.	Poaceae	Boz (Amh)	Boil it in water and wash the body with it	Dermal	H. zoster	[35]
98	Spinacia oleracea	Amaranthaceae	Keyh leqa (Tig)	—	—	SARS-CoV-2	[10]
99	Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Walp.	Menispermaceae	Kosta (Amh)	Crushed and given with milk and water	Orally	Rabies	[38]
100	Syzygium aromaticum	Myrtaceae	Chewchawit (Amh)	—	—	HSV-1 and 2	[9]
101	Trichilia dregeana	Meliaceae	Kirnfud (Amh)	Soaked, cooked, and put on tooth surface	dermal	Wound Warts	[36]
102	Triumfetta heterocarpa Sprague and Hutch.	Tiliaceae	Anunu (Oro)	The crushed fresh root is mixed with water and taken orally without food	Orally	Hepatitis	[49]
103	Verbascum sinaiticum Benth.	Scrophulariaceae	Yelam tut (Amh)	Roots are burned on fire and the smoke inhaled	Nasal	Hepatitis	[39]
104	Vitis vinifera	Vitaceae	Qetetina (Amh)	Fruits	Oral	HSV-1, PIV	[8]
105	Vernonia amygdalina Del.	Asteraceae	Weyin fire (Amh)	Leaves/roots	Oral	hepatitis, H. zoster, HSV, cough, HIV	[46]
106	Warburgia ugandensis Sprague	Canellaceae	Befit (Oro)	The smoke of 2-3 stick vascular part is inhaled to relieve cough	Nasal	Cough (C. cold)	[55]
107	Withania somnifera	Solanaceae	Giziewa or Kumo (Amh)	—	—	IBDV, HSV-1	[76]
				Fresh leaf and root will be crushed	Orally	Hepatitis	[36]
				Leaf and root crushed and drunk after boiling, powdered, juiced and drunk for 4 days, squeezed with leaves	Oral	Cough (C. cold)	[36]
108	Ximenia americana L.	Oleaceae	Enkuay (Amh)	Soaking bark in water and the water is taken orally	Orally	Rabies	[49]
109	Zehneria scabra (l.f.) Sond	Cucurbitaceae	Qorii Sinbiraa (Oro)	The pounded root of Zehneria scabra is concocted with the pounded root of Ricinus communis One feast of the pond is given to cattle and pack animals	Oral	Rabies	[41]
110	Zingiber officinale Roscoe.	Zingiberaceae	Zinjibile (Amh)	The stem is pounded well and boiled with water and drink	Orally, nasal	Influenza	[36, 37, 45]
				2–5 medium roots crushed and boiled with tea or water and then taken	Oral	Cough and c. cold	[43, 55]
111	Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex A. Rich.	Rhamnaceae	Kurkura (Amh)	Fresh leaves and root are crushed and mixed with water and taken orally	Orally	Hepatitis	[49]

Notes: H. zoster = herpes zoster; C. cold = common cold; BCV = bovine coronavirus; HSV-1 = herpes simplex virus type 1; CVB1 = Coxsackie B virus type 1; IBDV = infectious bursal disease virus; RA = route of administration; DT = disease treated; Amh = Amharic; Oro = Oromo; Tig = Tigrinya; Afa = Afar; Had = Hadiyya; Sid = Sidaamu-afoo.