[Retracted] AXL Inhibits Proinflammatory Factors to Relieve Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain by Regulating the TLR4/NF-<i>κ</i>B Signaling Pathway

Zhou, Guangzan; Li, Hang

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7625739

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Conflicts of Interest References Copyright Related Articles

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Volume 2022 | Article ID 7625739 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7625739

[Retracted] AXL Inhibits Proinflammatory Factors to Relieve Rheumatoid Arthritis Pain by Regulating the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Guangzan Zhou¹and Hang Li²

Academic Editor: Shuli Yang

Received31 May 2022

Accepted14 Jul 2022

Published09 Aug 2022

Abstract

Objective. This study aims to explore the role and mechanism of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) in relieving inflammatory pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methods. RA mouse model was constructed by collagen antibody induction. RT-qPCR and Western blot were used to detect the level of AXL in RA fibroblast-like synovial cells (RA-FLS) and joint synovium. The levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO) were detected by ELISA. The inflammatory infiltration in joints was determined via HE staining. The mechanical abnormal pain and hyperalgesia were detected by the Von Frey microfilament test. The protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (3COX-2), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), p65, and phosphor (p)-p65 were detected by Western blotting. Results. The expression of AXL in RA-FLS and RA mice was downregulated, while the expression of iNOS and COX-2 was upregulated. The levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and NO were increased in RA-FLS and RA mice. RA mice presented inflammatory cell infiltration, bone and cartilage destruction, and joint space stenosis. AXL overexpression alleviated inflammatory cell infiltration, inflammatory cytokine secretion, and pathological injury in RA mice. Additionally, AXL overexpression inhibited the expression of TLR4 and p-p65. Conclusion. AXL inhibits inflammatory pain in RA mice by suppressing TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

1. Introduction

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory rheumatism that mainly affects the facet joints of the hands and feet [1]. RA is more prevalent in women than in men with a global prevalence of 0.5%–1.0% [2]. Joint destruction can cause pain and loss of joint function. Pain is a major problem in patients with RA and adversely affects disability and psychosocial outcomes [3]. RA pain is mainly caused by peripheral nervous, central nervous, and mental factors [4]. The peripheral mechanisms of RA pain include direct activation of pain receptors/sensitized pain receptors through arthritis. Moreover, macrophages and other inflammatory cells damage the sensory nerves in the dorsal root ganglion, and spinal cord glial cells produce and release cytokines, which can cause joint pain [5]. Although anti-inflammatory cytokines and other drugs can achieve the treatment of RA to some extent; however, the therapeutic effect is not significant due to drug resistance. It has been found that autoantibodies play an essential role in the pathogenesis of RA. At the same time, autoantibody-induced arthritis depends on the innate immune system [6]. In this study, novel potential mechanisms related to RA pain were explored.

AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) belongs to the TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) family. TAM receptors can inhibit the production of cytokines and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent inflammation by hijacking proinflammatory signals, thus preventing the feedback mechanism of the autoimmune response [7]. Studies have shown that knocking down AXL can increase the level of TNF-α secreted by monocyte-derived dendritic cells [8]. Besides, the loss of inhibition of AXL on inflammatory bodies may lead to an increase in the level of IL-1β and the deterioration of ankle arthritis [9]. Nevertheless, the protective role of AXL in RA involving inflammatory pain has not been fully elucidated.

Inflammation is usually associated with the activation of different receptors, especially toll-like receptors [10]. TLR is not only an evolutionarily preserved pattern recognition receptor but also a bridge between nonspecific immunity and specific immunity. TLR mediates inflammation and aseptic inflammation caused by infection through endogenous molecules [11]. The TLR4 signaling pathway can induce the production of growth factors, leading to autoimmune diseases and inflammatory diseases [12]. Nuclear factor-transcription factor B (NF-κB) is a kind of inducible transcription factor, which regulates multiple genes involved in different processes of immune and inflammatory responses. NF-κB is the central medium induced by proinflammatory genes and is involved in both innate and adaptive immune cells [13]. It has been reported that miR-146a suppresses the proliferation of RA fibroblast-like synovial cells (RA-FLS) and the production of proinflammatory cytokines by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway [14]. Besides, silencing PTX3 can relieve inflammatory pain induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) through TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway [15]. TAM receptors have been shown to inhibit TLRs signals, thereby preventing overstimulation [16]. Furthermore, studies have shown that AXL and Mer are expressed in Leydig cells and inhibit TLR3 and TLR4 signal transduction redundantly [17]. In the present study, the role of AXL regulating the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in relieving RA inflammatory pain was assessed.

In view of the above research basis, we explored the role of AXL in RA pain in vivo and in vitro. This study revealed that AXL inhibited the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and alleviated inflammatory pain by affecting the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. These findings provide some references for the treatment of RA in a clinic.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. RA-FLS Cell Culture

Fibroblast-like synovial cells (FLS) and RA-FLS cells were purchased from Yaji Biotechnology Co., Ltd (Shanghai, China). The cells were maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin-streptomycin in a constant temperature and humidity box of 37°C and 5% CO₂.

2.2. RA Mouse Model Construction

The animal experiments were approved by the Ethics Committee of the First People’s Hospital of Xiaoshan. Female C57BL/6 mice (8-week-old, 20-25 g, n = 20) were adapted to the environment with a humidity of 50 ± 5%, 21 ± 2°C, and 12 h of light and dark cycle to eat and drink freely for 1 week. Establishment of a mouse model of RA was induced by collagen antibody [18]. In brief, model mice were induced by intraperitoneal injection of 5 mg anti-CII (collagen) antibody mixture on the first day. Control mice were intraperitoneally injected with the same dose of normal saline. On the third day, the mice were injected intraperitoneally with 50 μg LPS to synchronize the development of arthritis. Arthritis symptoms appeared on the 4th day, and euthanasia was performed with carbon dioxide on the 9th day. When the first signs of inflammation appeared, lentivirus-wrapped AXL overexpression vectors (oe-AXL) and negative control vectors (oe-NC) were injected into the left and right ankle joints. If there is inflammation, the left and right ankles can be injected within 2 days; otherwise, only the inflamed ankles need to be injected [18].

2.3. Clinical Score of RA Model Mice

The hind paws of each mouse were scored on a scale of 0–3: 0 = no sign, 1 = ankle swelling (the earliest sign of arthritis), 2 = ankle/wrist/pad moderating to severe swelling, and 3 = whole paw (including fingers) red and swollen, inflamed limbs, and involving multiple joints. Use a thickness gauge to measure the thickness of each rear claw and express it in millimeters.

2.4. Histology and Inflammation Score

The rear claws were fixed with 4% methanol for 24 h. After washing with graded ethanol (50%, 70%, 85%, 95%, and 100%, each for 2 h), the tissue was embedded in paraffin. The slicer blade was adjusted at an angle of 5° to the surface of the paraffin, which was then cut into 6 μm-thick sections. The sections were subsequently steeped in graded ethanol (100%, 95%, 85%, and 75%, each for 5 min) and stained with hematoxylin for 5 min and eosin for 2 min to evaluate joint pathology. As mentioned earlier [18], the degree of inflammation was assessed by three different experts based on a scale of 0–4 (0 = no inflammation, 1/2 = mild inflammation, 3 = moderate inflammation, and 4 = severe inflammation).

2.5. Von Frey Microfilament Assay

Von Frey microfilament test was used to evaluate mechanical abnormal pain and hyperalgesia. As mentioned earlier [19, 20], starting from the tiniest fiber, von Frey microfilaments (0.41–3.63 g) were utilized on the plantar surfaces of the two hind claws. Once the mouse showed rapid paw retraction, licking, or shaking/flicking, stimulus was removed to avoid injury. Recording the time when the monofilament was applied to the rear paw until the withdrawal reaction. All animals were tested five times at intervals of 10 seconds.

2.6. Real-Time Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR)

RT-qPCR was performed as previously described [21]. Total RNA of tissue or cell was extracted using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen, Waltham, MA, USA). PrimeScriot RT reagent kit (Takara, Japan) was applied to synthesize complementary DNA. PCR was performed on a 7500 real-time PCR system (Biosystem, MA, USA). The thermocycling conditions were as follows: 3 min denaturation at 95°C, 40 cycles of 95°C for 12 s and 62°C for 40 s. GAPDH was used as internal control. The relative expression of genes was calculated using the 2^−∆∆Cq method. Specific primer sequences were used as shown in Table 1.

2.7. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

Synovial tissue, serum, and cell supernatant were collected according to the commercial kit systems (Syngenetic organism, Harbin, China). Standard ELISA kits (Multi-Sciences, Hangzhou, China) were used to measure the concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), as well as nitric oxide (NO) production. The plate hole was measured at 450 nm using a microplate reader (Hiwell-Diatek, China).

2.8. Western Blot

Western blotting was conducted as previously described [22]. The total proteins of synovial tissue and cells were extracted and quantified with a BCA protein concentration kit (Beyotime, Shanghai, China). Proteins were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred to polyvinylidene fluoride membranes (Beyotime). The PVDF membrane was then blocked with 5% skim milk for 1 h before incubating with primary antibodies overnight at 4°C. The primary antibodies used in this experiment were as follows: AXL (1 : 1,000; ab215205, Abcam, UK), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS; 1 : 1,000; ab178945, Abcam), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2; 1 : 1,000; ab52237, Abcam), TLR4 (1 : 500; ab13556, Abcam), p65 (1 : 1,000; ^#3033, Cell Signaling Technology, MA, USA), phosphor (p)-p65 (1 : 1,000; ^#6956, Cell Signaling Technology), and GAPDH (1 : 10,000; ab181602, Abcam). After washing with 1 × Tris-buffered saline with Tween 20 for three times, PVDF membrane was incubated with the secondary antibodies for 60 min at 37°C in dark. The horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated secondary antibodies were goat anti-rabbit immunoglobin G (IgG) or goat anti-mouse IgG (1 : 2,000; SA00001-1, Proteintech Group, Wuhan, China). After applying the ECL color reagent and performing dark chamber exposure imaging, the gray value of the images was analyzed using ImageJ 8.0 (National Institutes of Health, MA, USA).

2.9. Statistical Analysis

All data are displayed as the mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD). One-way ANOVA was applied to analyze differences between groups. Statistical analyses were carried on GraphPad 8.0 software. means there are significant statistical differences between groups, which were represented by different symbols.

3. Results

3.1. AXL Was Downregulated in RA-FLS and Reduced Proinflammatory Cytokines

FLS plays the roles of imprinted aggressors and passive responders to cause damaging joint inflammation as a significant part of the synovial pannus. RA-FLS are regarded as hyperplastic, invasive, and multipotent inflammatory cells [23]. In order to investigate the role of AXL in RA, we first detected the level of AXL in RA-FLS. The results of Western blot and RT-qPCR presented that the expression of AXL protein and mRNA in RA-FLS were significantly lower than those in the control cells (FLS) (, Figure 1 (a-e). Similarly, Western blot indicated that the expression of inflammatory proteins iNOS and COX-2 was markedly upregulated in RA-FLS (, Figure 1(b-d). Furthermore, inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and NO in RA-FLS were detected. The concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α, and the production of NO in RA-FLS were prominently increased compared with that in control cells (, Figure 1(f-j). These results showed that AXL was downregulated and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines was increased in RA-FLS.

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(f)

(g)

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Figure 1

AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) was downregulated in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synovial cell (RA-FLS) and reduced proinflammatory cytokines. (a-d) A Western blot was applied to assess levels of AXL, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in RA-FLS. (e-g) mRNA levels of AXL, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were detected by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). (h-j) Levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and nitric oxide (NO) in RA-FLS were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). and compared with the control group.

3.2. Overexpression of AXL Relieved Pathological Injury and Pain in RA Mice

A mice model of RA was constructed by collagen antibody induction to investigate the effect of AXL on pathological injury and pain of RA. Results showed that the expression of AXL declined in the joint synovium of RA model mice, whereas AXL overexpression (oe-AXL) significantly increased the levels of AXL protein and mRNA in the joint synovium of RA model mice (, Figure 2(a) and (b)). Besides, the effect of AXL on pathological damage in RA mice was also evaluated. The results indicated that the paw thickness and clinical inflammation score of RA model mice were increased, while the paw thickness and clinical inflammation score were decreased after AXL overexpression (, Figure 2(c-e). Like-wise, HE staining showed that the joint structure of mice in control mice was intact, and there was no proliferated synovium and no inflammatory cell infiltration. Abnormal synovial hyperplasia, inflammatory cell infiltration, bone and cartilage destruction, and joint space stenosis were found in RA mice, while these symptoms were relieved by AXL overexpression (Figure 2(f)). In order to test whether AXL affects the pain behavior of RA mice, the paw withdrawal latency and threshold of RA mice were measured. Von Frey microfilament test showed that the latency time and threshold of RA model mice were markedly lower than that of control mice (, Figure 2(g) and (h)). However, the latency time and threshold of RA model mice were increased under the intervention of AXL (, Figure 2(g and h).

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(h)

Figure 2

RA model mice were induced by collagen antibodies. Lentivirus encapsulated AXL overexpression vector (oe-AXL) and negative control vector (oe-NC) were injected into the left and right ankle joints. (a) and (b) RT-qPCR and Western blot were applied to assess the level of AXL in synovial tissue of joint of RA model mice (c-e) The thickness of the rear claw and the clinical inflammation score were evaluated. (f) HE staining was used to detect the histopathological changes of knee osteoarthritis. Scale: 50 μm. (g) and (h)) Mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia were estimated by von Frey microfilament test. , ,

3.3. Overexpression of AXL Reduced Inflammatory Response in RA Model Mice

The regulation of AXL overexpression on the level of inflammatory mediators in RA model mice was evaluated. ELISA was applied to evaluate the concentration of IL-6 and TNF-α, and NO production in synovial tissue and serum. Results showed that the concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α, and the production of NO were increased in synovium and serum of RA model mice (). However, the overexpression of AXL decreased the concentrations of IL-6 and TNF-α, and the production of NO in synovium and serum of RA model mice (, Figure 3(a–f). Furthermore, Western blot indicated that the levels of iNOS and COX-2 in RA model mice were higher than those in the control mice, which were reduced after AXL overexpression (, Figure 3(g–i)). These results suggested that the overexpression of AXL can reduce the inflammatory response in RA mice.

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3.4. AXL Inhibited the TLR4/NF-κB Pathway in RA Model Mice

It has been confirmed that the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway can regulate the cell proliferation and inflammatory response of RA-FLS [14]. Subsequently, we studied the role of AXL in regulating the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in RA. Western blot confirmed that the expression of TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway related proteins p-p65 and TLR4 was upregulated in the synovial tissue of RA model mice (, Figure 4(a-d). Nevertheless, the protein expression of p-p65 and TLR4 declined after AXL overexpression in RA model mice (, Figure 4(a-d).

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4. Discussion

RA is an autoimmune disease which is characterized by chronic polyarticular synovitis and destruction of bone and cartilage [24]. It is generally accepted that the basic pathological mechanism is the activation of synovial cells, which secrete a large number of inflammatory factors that activate inflammatory cells and promote recruitment in the synovial stroma. On the other hand, the inflammatory factors secreted by inflammatory cells can feedback and promote the activation of synovial cells. This cascade reaction makes synovial cells rapidly activate, erupt and proliferate, form pannus, invade and destroy adjacent cartilage and bone [25, 26]. The clinical manifestations of RA are pain, swelling, and functional decline of the affected joints, and the lesions are persistent and recurrent [27]. RA model mice were induced by collagen antibodies in this study. Proinflammatory factors were increased in model mice and RA-FLS cells. The claw of model mice was obviously swollen, and clinical scores were increased in model mice. All of these results indicated successful establishment of RA model mice.

AXL is a transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase that can regulate apoptosis, cell survival and proliferation, and cell migration and aggregation through a variety of signal pathways in vivo [28]. Additionally, it has been confirmed that AXL can be cleaved by matrix metalloproteinases to form free AXL [29]. However, the content of free AXL in the plasma of patients with RA was significantly decreased [30], which suggests that the degradation of AXL may be involved in the pathogenesis of RA. On the other hand, the level of synovial AXL is affected by the upstream TGF-β1 in RA [9]. In line with the previous study, our results showed AXL was significantly downregulated in RA-FLS cells and RA mice. Subsequently, AXL was overexpressed to investigate its role in RA.

Inflammation is one of the most common causes of pain. Many unexplained pain disorders are caused by aseptic inflammation of soft tissue [31]. Proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-17, are the key factors in the pathogenesis and development of RA. They have direct effects on sensory neurons and can directly increase the sensitivity and excitability of sensory neurons [4]. Recently, it has been reported that compared with healthy controls, the expression of serum IL-6 is increased in patients with RA, and inhibition of IL-6 can relieve pain in patients with RA [32]. The production of IL-6 can be induced by inflammation or other types of infection, which is essential for both innate immunity and adaptive immunity [33]. Moreover, AXL can inhibit the TNF-α and IL-6 production in hemodialysis patients [34]. Therefore, in the current study, we explored whether AXL can relieve RA pain by relieving inflammation. We found that the concentration of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) and NO production were increased in RA model mice, while the secretion of inflammatory cytokines was decreased after AXL overexpression. Likewise, COX-2 plays an essential role in inflammatory response and is a key rate-limiting enzyme in prostaglandin synthesis [35]. iNOS can accelerate the production of proinflammatory factor NO [36]. In our present study, the expression of iNOS and COX-2 was markedly upregulated in RA-FLS cells and RA mice. In addition, the pathological results showed that in the RA model mice, the intra-articular synovium of RA mice was abnormal hyperplasia, pannus formation, bone and cartilage destruction, accompanied by joint space stenosis. The articular surface structure of AXL overexpression mice was relatively complete, with a small amount of synovial hyperplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration. At the same time, the von Frey microfilament test showed that the response latency of RA mice was markedly lower than that of control mice. However, the response latency of mice was increased under the intervention of AXL, indicating that AXL can relieve the joint pain of RA mice. In addition, the sensitivity of RA mice to pressure pain was higher than that of control mice, and the pressure pain threshold of RA mice decreased significantly. However, under the intervention of AXL, the pressure pain threshold of RA mice increased markedly. These results showed that the overexpression of AXL relieved pathological injury and inflammatory pain in RA.

Additionally, previous studies have shown that the TLR4/NF-κB signal pathway is involved in regulating the development of RA. For example, miR-548a-3p regulates the inflammatory response of rheumatoid arthritis through the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway [37]. Likewise, Yan et al. have shown that lncRNA HIX003209 promotes RA inflammation through the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway [38]. TLR4 is a critical member of the TLRs family and one of the upstream molecules of NF-κB signaling. The expression intensity of NF-κB and p65 evaluates the activation of NF-κB (p65 is the transcriptional activation subunit of NF-κB) [39, 40]. In this study, we evaluated the role of TLR4/NF-κB in AXL in relieving RA pain. We found that the expression of p-p65 and TLR4 in the synovium of RA mice was upregulated, which was downregulated after AXL overexpression. These results indicate that AXL can block the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in RA.

5. Conclusion

In a word, we found that AXL could block the TLR4/NF-κB pathway and inhibit the inflammatory response and RA pain. This study found a new mechanism of AXL in the treatment of RA pain, which provides some reference for the clinical treatment of RA. Nevertheless, this study has some limitations. First of all, this study explored the effect and mechanism of AXL on relieving RA pain at the cellular level and in the in vivo mice model. Clinical samples need to further confirm the inhibitory effect of AXL on RA pain by blocking the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. Secondly, some studies have confirmed that PI3K/AKT and WNT signal pathways are also involved in regulating the progress of RA [41, 42]. Whether AXL can regulate other signal pathways to relieve RA pain needs to be further confirmed.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Copyright © 2022 Guangzan Zhou and Hang Li. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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