Leaves, stem, and root barks of Spondias mombin L.
Tropical Africa
Paralysis and death time in vitro assay against earthworm E. eugeniae
Leaf extract caused paralysis and death at 15 ± 0.33 and 34 ± 0.65 min, respectively [128]
(9)
n-Hexane, acetone, and aqueous extracts
Leaves of Spondias mombin L.
In vitro activity against adult Haemonchus placei
All extracts show some level of activity against the worms with LC50 values of 104, 30.5 and 56.27 mg/mL, respectively [129]
Annonaceae
(10)
Aqueous extract
Leaves of Annona muricata L.
West Africa
In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality assay against H. contortus
Effective against egg hatching, L3 larvae (84.91%) and adult worms and 89.08% inhibition at 33% v/v [130]
(11)
Aqueous extracts
Stem bark of Annona senegalensis Pers.
Tropical Africa
In vitro faecal egg hatch inhibition activity against H. contortus in sheep
Concentration-dependent decline in larval recovery (88.5 ± 3.1% at 7.1 mg/ml) [131]
(12)
Aqueous extract
Seeds of Monodora tenuifolia Benth.
West and East Africa
In vitro EHIA against mixed intestinal nematodes of goats
Significant reduction in egg hatching (93%) at 100 mg/ml [87]
(13)
Ethanolic extract
Leaves and stem bark of Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.)
West Africa
In vitro larval mortality and in vivo FEC assays against H. bakeri in mice
Both extracts possess inhibitory effects on larvae and FEC. At 400 mg/kg the extracts reduced FEC to 0.60 ± 0.24 and 0.40 ± 0.24 EPG, respectively [132]
(14)
Methanolic extracts
Seeds and leaves of Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich
Tropical Africa
In vivo assay of postmortem worm recovery against Nippostrongylus brasiliensis in rats
At 30 mg/ml, the fruit extract caused paralysis and death in 65.34 ± 7.05 and 81.72 ± 19.63 min, respectively, whilst leaf extract caused same effects in 69.27 ± 0.00 and 96.39 ± 0.00 min, respectively [134]
Apocynaceae
(16)
Hydroethanolic extract
Stem and root barks of Alstonia boonei De Wild
Tropical West and East Africa
In vitro assay against P. Posthuma
Both extracts induced significant paralysis (17.00 ± 2.10 and 93.00 ± 2.04 min) and death (100.00 ± 2.47 and 151.00 ± 2.27 min), respectively [135]
(17)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Stem bark of Alstonia boonei De Wild
In vitro paralysis and mortality assay against earth worms-Lumbricus terretris
Both extracts induced paralysis (43.50 ± 7.67 and 34.89 ± 2.48 min, respectively) [99]
(18)
Crude powder, aqueous and methanolic extracts
Flowers of Calotropis procera Ait. F.
Tropical Africa
In vitro assay against adult motility, and in vivo FEC against H. contortus in sheep
Powder and aqueous extract reduced FEC (88.4 and 77.8% at 3 g/kg on day 7 and 10 posttreatment, respectively). Aqueous extract induced 70% worm paralysis at 6 h of 25 mg/ml treatment [121]
(19)
Dried and fresh latex
Latex of Calotropis procera Ait. F.
In vitro activity against adult P. posthuma
Latex possess wormicidal activity (100% mortality at 60 min of 100 mg/ml treatment) and caused causing irreversible paralysis in lower doses [136]
(20)
Methanolic extracts
Stem bark and leaves of Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against P. posthuma
At 50 mg/ml, the two extracts caused paralysis at 11.17 ± 0.08 and 21.68 ± 0.10 min and death at 21.67 ± 0.73 and 143.35 ± 1.41 min, respectively [137]
(21)
Methanolic extracts
Stem bark and leaves of Voacanga africana Stapf ex. Scott-Elliot
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against P. posthuma
At 50 mg/ml, both extracts caused paralysis at 7.03 ± 0.49 and 22.55 ± 0.57 min and death at 14.77 ± 0.12 and 113.99 ± 1.01 min, respectively [137]
Asparagaceae
(22)
Aqueous extract
Sisal waste liquid of Agave sisalana Perrine ex Engelm.
West Tropical Africa
In vivo FEC assay, coprocultures and postmortem worm counts in goats
Extracts reduced FEC (50.3%) and faecal worm count (80%) at 1.7 g/kg with no apparent toxicity to the animals [119]
(23)
Aqueous extracts
Leaf, scape, and bulb of Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop.
East and West Africa
In vitro action against adult P. posthuma
All extracts had significant anthelmintic effects. The hot aqueous extract of the leaf was the most active, inducing paralysis at 41.3 ± 0.94 min and death at 50 ± 0.81 at 5 mg/ml [104]
Asteraceae
(24)
Saponin fraction
Aerial parts of Achillea wilhelmsii K. Koch
North Africa
In vitro assay on P. posthuma, tapeworms (R. spiralis), and adult roundworms (A. galli)
At 40 mg/ml, A. wilhelmsi fraction was 1.96 and 2.12 times more potent than albendazole against P. posthuma and R. spiralis, respectively [65]
(25)
Aqueous extract
Leafy stems of Ageratum conyzoides L.
Tropical Africa
In vitro effects on adult L. terrestris
Extract caused 100% mortality at 62 ± 0.28 min [138]
(26)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Aerial parts of Artemisia absinthium L.
North Africa
In vitro worm motility assay against H. contortus and in vivo FEC in sheep nematodes
Both extracts were active against ovine nematodes. Ethanolic extract caused FECR of 90.46% at 2.0 g/kg on day 15 posttreatment, and >80% inhibition of worm motility in vitro after 8 h with 25 mg/ml treatment [139]
(27)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Whole plant of Artemisia brevifolia Wall.
South and Tropical Africa
In vitro inhibition of adult worm motility against H. contortus and in vivo FEC assay against H. contortus, T. colubriformis, T. axei, O. columbianum, S. Papillosus and T. ovis in sheep
Methanolic extract inhibited motility (80% at 6 h with 25 mg/ml treatment) and aqueous extract reduced FEC in vivo (67.2% at 3 g/kg on day 14) [140]
(28)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Tropical Africa
In vitro paralysis and mortality assay against earth worms-Lumbricus terretris
Both extracts caused significant paralysis (59.94 ± 8.25 and 33.18 ± 12.41 min, respectively) [99]
(29)
Aqueous extract
In vitro faecal egg hatch inhibition activity against H. contortus in sheep
Extract had no significant inhibition at 11.2 mg/ml [131]
(30)
Acetone extract
In vitro testing on eggs, infective larvae, and adult stages of H. contortus
Extract was active with 42% ovicidal effect, 70% inhibition of larval migration 90% adulticidal effects at 300 μg/mL [141]
(31)
Chloroformic and ethanolic extracts
Stem of Vernonia amygdalina Del.
In vitro activity against adult P. posthuma
Chloroformic extract was more active causing paralysis and death at 11.95 ± 0.28 and 41.74 ± 2.21 min, respectively, at 75 mg/ml [142]
Burseraceae
(32)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves, stem, and root barks of Commiphora africana A. Rich, Engl.
Tropical Africa
Paralysis and death time in vitro assay against earthworm E. eugeniae
Leaf extract induced paralysis and death at 17 ± 0.72 and 87 ± 6.89 min, respectively [128]
(33)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Stem bark of Boswellia dalzielii Hutch.
West Africa
In vitro assay against egg hatching of C. elegans strains
Both extracts, respectively, yield 53.8% and 69.1% egg hatch inhibition at 2 mg/ml [106]
Combretaceae
(34)
Aqueous extract
Leaves of Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr.
West, Central and East Africa
In vivo effects on FEC in sheep naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes
Dose-dependent FECR and worm burden reduction (39.5% and 33%, respectively, after 3 consecutive days 400 mg/kg treatment) [143]
(35)
Aqueous decoction
In vitro EHIA, larvicidal assay and mortality of adult H. contortus
Significant ovicidal (ED50 = 409.5 μg/mL), and larvicidal (100% eclodibility inhibition at 1.2 mg/ml) actions. Active against adult worms, but not dose dependent [89]
(36)
Acetone extract and fractions
In vitro EHIA and larval viability assays against H. contortus
The extract and fractions exhibited concentration-dependent ovicidal and larvicidal activity. LC50 of 360 and 509 μg/ml, respectively, for the acetone extract [92]
(37)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Leaves and bark of Anogeissus leocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr.
In vitro activity against C. elegans (wild type) larvae
Ethanolic extract of the bark was the most active with LC50 of 380 μg/ml [144]
(38)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves, roots, and bark of Anogeissus leocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr.
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
All extracts possess anthelmintic action with EC50 between 2.5 μg/ml and 10 μg/ml [145]
(39)
Fractions of ethanolic extract
Stem bark of Anogeissus schimperi Hochst.
Tropical Africa
In vivo activity against Nippostrongylus braziliensis in rats.
Aqueous fraction showed 64.15% efficacy at 50 mg/kg body weight [146]
(40)
Acetone extract and fractions
Leaves of Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don
Tropical East Africa
In vitro EHIA, larval development, and viability assay in H. contortus
Extract and fractions exhibited ovicidal (LC50 = 0.87 mg/ml) and larvicidal (LC50 = 0.60 mg/ml) action against H. contortus [147]
(41)
Ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Combretum mucronatum Schumach. & Thonn.
Tropical Africa
In vitro adulticidal and larvicidal action against A. ceylanicum, H. bakeri, and T. muris and in vivo against these parasites in NMRI mice
Extract possess nematicidal activities with in vitro minimum lethal concentration of 10 μg/mL against T. muris and a worm burden reduction of 85.3% in vivo [148]
(42)
Hydroethanolic extract
In vitro action against C. elegans larvae
Extract caused 41.9% inhibition of larvae at 1 mg/ml [149]
(43)
Hydroethanolic extract and fractions
In vitro action against C. elegans L4 larvae.
Extract exhibited moderate activity with LC50 of 1.67 mg/ml. Ethyl acetate fraction was active with LC50 of 1.73 mg/ml [150]
Atomic force microscopy of C. elegans treated with tannin-enriched extract.
Ultrastructural changes were reported in the cuticle but no morphological changes on the intestines [151]
(44)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Stem bark Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA and larval development of C. elegans (wildtype and ivermectin-resistant DA1316) strains
Methanolic extract inhibited egg hatch (>80%) and larval development (>90%) in both strains [152]
(45)
Pet. ether, DCM, ethyl acetate, methanolic and aqueous extracts
Dry fallen leaves of Terminalia catappa L.
Tropical West Africa
In vitro EHIA and larval mortality assay against H. contortus
98.9% inhibition of egg hatching and 98.9% larval reduction by DCM extract at 6.25 mg/ml [153]
(46)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves of Terminalia glaucescens Planch. ex Benth.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Both extracts with active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml each [145]
Cucurbitaceae
(47)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Seeds of Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf.
East and South Africa
In vitro paralysis and mortality effects against L. terrestris
Aqueous extract at 50 mg/ml induced paralysis and death at 38.49 ± 1.20 and 58.2 ± 3.41 min, respectively [154]
(48)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Seeds of Cucurbita pepo L.
West Africa
In vitro paralysis and mortality effects against L. terrestris
Aqueous extract caused concentration-dependent paralysis and death of the worms (37.25 ± 1.60 and 50.49 ± 2.28 min, respectively) at 50 mg/ml [154].
(49)
Ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Momordica charantia L.
Tropical Africa
In vitro action against adult C. elegans (wild type, N2, Bristol)
Extracts of plants from different ecological zones showed varying degree of activities with LC50 between 473 and 997 μg/ml [155].
(50)
Ethanolic extracts
Fruits of Momordica charantia L.
In vitro activity against GIN and in vivo FECR assay in goats
100% mortality at 100 mg/ml and 78% FECR on day 9 posttreatment [126]
(51)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Seeds of Telfairia occidentalis Hook. f.
Tropical Africa
In vitro paralysis and mortality effects against L. terrestris
Aqueous extract at 50 mg/ml caused paralysis and death in 42.97 ± 1.45 and 66.63 ± 4.10 min, respectively [154]
Euphorbiaceae
(52)
Petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol extracts
Leaves of Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach.) Müll. Arg.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against E. eugeniae (earthworms)
The methanol extract was the most active inducing paralysis and death at 26.28 ± 0.575 and 57.30 ± 0.370 min, respectively, at 12 mg/ml concentration [156]
(53)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
The chloromethylenic extract and alkaloidal fraction significantly inhibited the worms with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml [145]
(54)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Euphorbia hirta L.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against C. elegans (wild type) larvae
Ethanolic extract was the most active with LC50 of 2.0 mg/ml [144]
(55)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves of Mallotus oppositifolius Müll. Arg.
West Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Both extracts and alkaloid fraction were active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against the worms [145]
Fabaceae
(56)
Methanolic extract
Fruits of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, adult motility, and larval development assay against H. contortus and in vivo against H. contortus, T. circumcincta, and T. ovis in sheep.
LC50 = 512.86 and 194.98 μg/mL against egg hatch and larval development, respectively. FEC reduced by 78.5% on day 13 post 3.0 g/kg treatment [97]
(57)
Hydroalcoholic extracts
In vitro larvicidal action against C. elegans strains and Onchocerca ochengi
LC50 = 10.8 ± 0.3 μg/mL against microfilariae of O. onchengi and 350 ± 1.1 μg/mL against C. elegans WT [110]
(58)
Dry feed (browse meal)
Leaves of Acacia polyacantha Wild.
Ethiopia, South Africa
In vivo effect on FEC and worm burdens in experimentally infected sheep and goats
Moderate reduction in FEC and worm burden: 27% and 13%, respectively, in sheep and 19% FEC reduction in goats [112]
(59)
Acetone extracts of indigenous browses
Leaves of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, LMIA and adult motility inhibition assays (AMIA) against H. contortus
Effective against egg hatching (38% at 300 μg/mL), with no dose-dependent inhibition of larvae and adults [141]
(60)
Acetone extracts of indigenous browses
Leaves of Acacia seyal Del.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, LMIA and AMIA against H. contortus
Concentration-dependent ovicidal effects (34% at 300 μg/mL) with minimal effects on larvae and adult worms [141]
(61)
Acetone extracts of indigenous browses
Leaves of Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, LMIA and AMIA against H. contortus
Concentration-dependent ovicidal effects (39% at 300 μg/mL) but no significant larvicidal and adulticidal activity [141]
(62)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves of Afrormosia laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Harms
West Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Both extracts and alkaloid fraction were active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against the worms [145]
In vitro EHIA and larvicidal activity against strongyle-type sheep nematode
The aqueous extract inhibited egg hatching, larval development, and survival of worms (ED50 = 144.2, 65.2 and 312.4 μg/mL, respectively). The methanolic extract only caused high mortality of larvae (ED50 = 11.8 μg/mL). The chloroformic extract had moderate effects on larval development (ED50 = 208.0 μg/mL) [86]
(65)
Aqueous extract
In vivo efficacy against Haemonchus spp., Trichostrogylus spp. and Oesophagostomum spp. mixed infection in sheep
Efficacy of 89.8% was observed against the nematodes [157]
(66)
Aqueous and ethanolic extract
Stem bark of Albizia schimperiana Oliv.
Tropical Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity against H. contortus
Ovicidal activities with ED50 = 0.11 μg/mL of aqueous extract and significantly inhibited larval development (99.31% at 50 mg/ml) [158]
(67)
Methanolic extract
Seeds, leaves, flowers of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze
West Tropical Africa
In vitro assay against C. elegans (wild type) larvae
Extract of seeds very active against C. elegans (ED50 = 901.5 μg/mL) in microwell assay [109]
(68)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Seed kernel of Caesalpinia crista L.
Tropical Africa
In vitro antimotility, and EHIA against H. contortus and in vivo against FEC in mixed parasite infected sheep
LC50 = 0.449 mg/ml in egg hatch test. EPG reduced by 82.2% at dose of 3.0 g/kg on day 5 posttreatment [127]
(69)
Aqueous decoction
Stem bark of Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalz.
Sudan, Senegal, Egypt, Uganda
In vitro EHIA, larvicidal assay and mortality of adult H. contortus
Ovicidal (ED50 = 245.9 μg/mL and larvicidal (100% eclodibility inhibition at 1.2 mg/ml) actions. Active against adult worms, but not dose-dependent [89]
70)
Acetone extracts of indigenous browses
Leaves of Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) ex. Baker
Tropical Africa
In vitro testing on eggs, infective larvae, and adult stages of H. contortus
Ovicidal action (35% at 300 μg/mL) but no significant effects against larvae and adult worms [141]
(71)
Aqueous methanolic extract
Leaves of Mimosa pudica L.
East Africa
In vitro egg hatch assay and in vivo using H. bakeri experimentally infected adult albino mice
Extract significantly inhibited egg hatch in vitro (LC50 of 1.160 μg/mL) and reduced worm count in vivo [118]
(72)
Aqueous and ethanolic extract
Leaves of Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Tropical Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity against H. contortus
ED50 = 0.13 μg/mL against egg hatch and 96.36% inhibition of larval development [158]
(73)
Chloroformic and methanolic extracts
Aerial parts of Tephrosia spinosa (L.f.) Pers.
Tropical Africa
In vitro anthelmintic activity on adult Indian earth worms (Pheretima posthuma)
In vitro EHIA and larval development assays against H. contortus
93.2 ± 0.9% inhibition of egg hatch and 81.8 ± 2.99% inhibition of larval development at 500 mg/ml [94]
(75)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves of Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA and larval development assays against H. contortus
Significant inhibition against of egg hatch (95.8 ± 1.71%) and larval development (99.0 ± 1.41%) at 500 mg/ml [94]
Lamiaceae
(76)
Aqueous and ethanolic extract
Flowers and roots of Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson
Southern and East Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity against H. contortus
Aqueous extract had ED50 = 0.25 μg/mL against egg hatch and 100% larval development inhibition at 50 mg/ml [158]
(77)
Aqueous and ethanolic extract
Aerial parts of Leucas martinicensis (Jacq) R.Br.
Tropical Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity against H. contortus
ED50 = 0.09 μg/mL of aqueous extract against egg hatch and inhibited larval development by 99.85% at 50 mg/ml [158]
(78)
Hexane and ethanolic extracts
Fruits of Ocimum basilicum L.
West Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against the earthworm E. eugeniae
Ethanolic extract was most active causing paralysis in 11.85 ± 0.71 min and death in 24.74 ± 0.42 min at 5 mg/ml. This was significantly active than mebendazole, the positive control [159]
(79)
Acetone extract
Leaves of Ocimum gratissimum Forssk.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against adult H. placei
Concentration-dependent inhibition of parasites with LC50 of 17.70 mg/ml [160]
(80)
Essential oils
Whole plant of Ocimum sanctum L.
Across Africa
In vitro assay against C. elegans (wild type) larvae
Oil and eugenol (ED50 of 62.1 μg/mL) showed activity against C. elegans larvae [108]
(81)
Essential oil
Aerial parts of Thymus bovei Benth.
North Africa
In vitro wormicidal action on adult P. posthuma
At 10 mg/ml, paralysis and death time were 19.61 ± 0.88 and 47.32 ± 0.94 min, respectively [161]
(82)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
Stem barks of Vitex doniana Sweet
Tropical Africa
In vitro assay against egg hatching of C. elegans strains
At 2 mg/ml, both extracts had 83.8% and 92.3% ovicidal activity, respectively, against the ivermectin-resistant strain DA1316 [106]
(83)
Saponin fraction
Aerial parts of Teucrium stocksianum Boiss.
Tropical East and North Africa
In vitro assay on P. posthuma, tapeworms (R. spiralis), and adult roundworms (A. galli)
At 40 mg/ml, the fraction was 1.89, 1.96 and 1.37 times active than albendazole against the three organisms, respectively [65]
Meliaceae
(84)
Aqueous, methanolic extract and fraction
Seeds of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA and larval survival assay against H. contortus
All fractions exhibited dose-dependent effects. Ethyl acetate fraction had LC50 = 21.32 μg/ml against egg hatching and 83% wormicidal effects at 50 mg/ml 1 h postexposure [162]
(85)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
In vivo inhibition of FEC and larval counts in sheep naturally infected with H. contortus and Trichostrongyus spp
Both extracts induced 29.3% and 40.2% reduction in EPG on day 15 posttreatment with 3 g/kg [163]
(86)
Aqueous extract
Leaves of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
In vitro activity against P. posthuma, tapeworms (Raillietina spiralis) and roundworms (Ascaridia galli)
The extract significantly reduced paralysis (17 ± 0.32, 13 ± 0.85, 19 ± 0.50 min) and death time (30 ± 0.11, 38 ± 1.20, 40 ± 0.50 min), respectively, against all parasites [164]
(87)
Crude feed
In vivo efficacy against bovine strongylosis
Induced about 98% FECR on day 14 posttreatment [165]
(88)
Diethyl etheric, chloroformic, ethanolic and methanolic extracts
In vitro activity against microfilariae of Setaria cervi
Methanolic and ethanolic extracts were the most active with 87% and 60% mortality at 45 min posttreatment with 200 μg/ml [166]
(89)
Traditional preparations
In vivo activity (FEC and TWC) against H. polygyrus in mice
26% FECR and 15% TWCR at 7 days posttreatment [84]
(90)
Ethanolic extracts
In vitro activity against GIN and in vivo FECR assay in goats
100% mortality at 100 mg/ml with 81% reduction in EPG on day 9 posttreatment [126]
(91)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves, stem, and root barks of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
In vitro EHIA and larval inhibition against strongylid nematodes of small ruminants
Dose-dependent activity with over 90% inhibition of survival and about 50% inhibition of egg hatch at 100 mg/ml [167]
(92)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Stem bark Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.
West, Central and East Africa
In vitro activity against larvae of strongyles, and in vivo against mixed intestinal nematodes in sheep
Both extracts are active with no significant difference between them. Ethanolic extract had LC50 of 0.51 mg/ml and 88.82% FECR at 500 mg/kg, respectively [168].
(93)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Leaves and bark of Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.
In vitro activity against C. elegans (wild type) larvae
Ethanolic extract of the bark and leaves had LC50 of 470 μg/ml and 1.0 mg/ml, respectively, against C. elegans [144].
(94)
1 : 1 DCM: methanolic extract
Whole plant of Lansium domesticum Corrêa
Tropical East Africa
In vitro activity against L3, L4 and adult C. elegans (wild type, Bristol N2)
Extract significantly reduced survival of adult worms to 59% [107].
Musaceae
(95)
Dry feed
Leaves of Musa spp
Tropical Africa
In vivo assay against H. contortus, and T. colubriformis in sheep
Significant inhibition of egg hatching in T. colubriformis (91% on day 15 posttreatment) [169]
(96)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves, pseudostems, and hearts of Musa spp.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against larval development in H. contortus
Significant inhibition of larval development (>96.9%) recorded at 75 mg/ml [170]
(97)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves, pseudostems, and heart of Musa spp. cv. Prata anã
Tropical Africa
In vitro egg hatch, and larval development assays, and in vivo FEC reduction assay against H. contortus in lambs
The leaf extract exhibited ovicidal (LC50 = 0.19 mg/ml) and larvicidal activities in vitro, and 33.0% FECR after 1 week of treatment with 303 mg/kg body weight [171]
(98)
Dry feed
Leaves of Musa x paradisiaca L.
Tropical Africa
In vivo assay as feed for lambs experimentally infected with H. contortus
Significant FECR after 21 consecutive days of feeding with 7000 g/lamb/day [172]
(99)
Hydromethanolic extracts
In vitro activity against H. contortus eggs, adult motility assay in vivo effect on FEC and larval counts in sheep naturally infected with mixed species of nematodes
Extract exhibited strong in vitro activity on egg hatching (LC50 = 2.13 μg/mL) and caused 80.7% reduction in FEC in vivo at 8 g/kg body [173]
(100)
Methanolic extracts
Roots of Musa spp. (M. paradisiaca, M. sapientum, and M. nana)
Tropical Africa
In vitro assay against sheep tapeworm (Moniezia benedeni), roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), and adult earthworm (Esenia fetida)
All extracts showed significantly paralytic effects on the worms. M. paradisiaca was more active with 26.07 ± 1.7, 57.08 ± 1.32, and 80.04 ± 0.5 min paralysis time against the three worms, respectively [173]
Phyllanthaceae
(101)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves and bark of Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
The dichloromethane extracts were more active than the methanolic extracts with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml and 5 μg/ml, respectively [145]
(102)
Hydroethanolic extract
Shoots of Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Tropical Africa
In vitro action against C. elegans larvae
Extract caused 10.8% inhibition of larvae (89.2% survival) at 1 mg/ml [149]
Piperaceae
(103)
Aqueous extract
Seeds of Piper guineense Thonn.
West, East, And Central Africa
In vitro EHIA against mixed intestinal nematodes of goats
Extract was active against the worm with LC50 of 56.04 mg/ml [160]
(107)
Ethanolic extract
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Tropical East Africa
In vitro activity against GIN from goats
Extract exhibited 50% mortality at 100 mg/ml [126]
Primulaceae
(108)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Seeds of Embelia rowlandii Gilg
Tropical West Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activities of extracts against H. bakeri
The two extracts showed concentration-dependent ovicidal (82.5 and 46.9%), hatch inhibition (85.8 and 41.0%), and L1 larvicidal (86.0 and 61.2%) effects, respectively, at 5 mg/ml [174]
(109)
Aqueous extract
Fruits and leaves of Myrsine africana L.
East and South Africa
In vivo efficacy against Haemonchus spp., Trichostrogylus spp., and Oesophagostomum spp. mixed infection in sheep
Extract exhibited 77% efficacy against the parasites [157]
(110)
Traditional preparations
Seeds of Myrsine africana L.
In vivo activity (FEC and TWC) against H. polygyrus in mice
16% FECR and 10% TWCR at 7 days posttreatment [84]
(111)
Feed paste
Fruits of Rapanea melanophloeos L.
Tropical Africa
In vivo activity against H. polygyrus in mice
Moderate reduction in FEC and with no apparent effects on total worm counts [84]
Rosaceae
(112)
Serial ether, chloroformic, methanolic, and chloromethylenic extracts
Stem bark of Hagenia abyssinica Bruce J.F. Gmel
Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, DRC
In vitro activity against Panagrellus redivivus and C. elegans
Relatively polar extracts possess anthelmintic activities against the test organisms. Methanolic extract at 20 mg/ml caused 67% mortality in C. elegans after 24 h [105]
(113)
Methanolic extract
Fruits of Rubus fruticosus Marshall
North Africa
In vitro activity against R. spiralis and A. galli
89.83% and 84.2% parasiticidal activity at 40 mg/ml against R. spiralis and A. galli, respectively [175]
Rubiaceae
(114)
Ethanolic, aqueous extracts
Stem bark of Canthium mannii Hiern.
West Africa
In vitro EHIA against Ancylostoma caninum
Ethanolic extract caused 90% egg hatch inhibition at 1 mg/ml after 48 h. The aqueous extracts had <50% eclodibility inhibition [96]
(115)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves and roots of Morinda lucida A. Gray
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against R. pseudoelongata
Both extracts were active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against the worms [145]
(116)
Hydroethanolic extract
Stem bark of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides A. Gray
In vitro action against P. posthuma
Extract induced dose-dependent inhibition with paralysis and death time of 18.17 ± 0.03 and 24.34 ± 0.21 min, respectively, at 50 mg/ml [176]
(117)
Ethanolic extract
Leaves of Morinda lucida A. Gray
In vitro effects on egg hatching, infective larvae, and adult worms of T. colubriformis
Concentration-dependent ovicidal effect, with 18% inhibition of motility at 48 h of 2.5 mg/ml treatment [177]
(118)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Nauclea latifolia Sm.
West and Central Africa
In vitro EHIA against H. contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides spp., Trichuris ovis and Oesophagostomum spp. and in vivo in sheep naturally infected with ovine nematodes
LC50 of 0.704 and 0.650 mg/ml for the aqueous and ethanolic extract in vitro, respectively, for mixed parasites. Both extracts caused reduction of FEC in vivo with improved haemoglobin and leukocytosis in worm-infested sheep [95]
(119)
Aqueous extract
Stem bark of Nauclea latifolia Sm.
In vivo efficacy study against strongyle ovine nematodes
FEC was significantly reduced (93.8%) in infected animals treated with 1600 mg/kg body weight for 5 consecutive days [178]
Rutaceae
(120)
Ethanolic extract
Roots of Clausena anisate (Willd.) Hook. F.
Tropical Africa
In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum
Extracts were significantly active with EC50 of 74 μg/mL [24]
(121)
DCM -methanolic (1:1) extract
Root bark of Teclea trichocarpa Engl.
East Africa
In vitro EHIA and larval development in Strongyloides
Effective against egg hatching (IC50 = 185.25 μg/mL) and but not larval development at 1 mg/ml [93]
(122)
Ethanolic extract
Root bark of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler
West Africa
In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum
Extract inhibited larval migration with EC50 of 164 μg/mL [24]
(123)
Ethanolic extract
Leaves of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler
In vitro effects on egg hatching, infective larvae, and adult worms of Trichostrongylus colubriformis
Significant inhibition of adult worm motility (87% after 48 of 2.5 mg/ml treatment) [177]
Zingiberaceae
(124)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves and rhizomes of Aframomum sceptrum (Oliv. & D. Hanb.) K. Schum.
West Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Both extract and alkaloid fraction were active with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml against the worms [145]
(125)
Aqueous extract
Leafy stems of Aframomum alboviolaceum (Ridl.) K. Schum
Tropical Africa
In vitro effects on adult L. terrestris
Extract caused 100% mortality at 86 ± 3.21 min [138]
(126)
Crude powder
Rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Tropical Africa
In vivo FEC in pigs experimentally infected with S. ransomi, H. rubidus, T. axei and G. urosubulatus
The powder significantly reduced FEC (92.6% with 25 g/kg treatment against S. ransomi) [179]
(127)
Aqueous extract and powder
In vivo FEC assay against mixed nematode infection in sheep
Both powder and extract caused a dose-dependent reduction in FEC (25.6% and 66.6%, respectively) [180]
Others
(128)
Hydromethanolic extracts
Whole plant of Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, adult motility assay against H. contortus. In vivo FEC assay in sheep naturally infected with mixed species of nematodes
Extract strongly inhibited egg hatching (LC50 = 2.41 μg/mL) and significantly reduced FEC (85.6% at 8.0 g/kg on day 15 posttreatment) [181]
(129)
Aqueous and ethanolic extracts
Seeds of Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae)
Tropical East Africa
In vitro EHIA and effects on adult worms, and in vivo FEC assay against H. contortus in sheep
Both extracts were active against egg hatching (ED50 = 0.12 and 0.18 mg/ml resp.), and moderately reduced FEC (24.5% at 0.9 g/kg) [182]
(130)
Ethanolic extract
In vitro and in vivo FEC assay against Hymenolepis nana in mice
Extracts paralysed and killed the worms within 30 min and caused a 100% FECR at 500 mg/kg on day 15 posttreatment [114]
(131)
Aqueous and hydroethanolic extracts
Ripe fruits of Hedera helix L. (Araliaceae)
North and South Africa
In vitro EHIA, faecal worm burden and adult worm mortality, and in vivo FEC assay against H. contortus in sheep
Both extracts reduce faecal parasite count (44.2% at 2.25 g/kg) and produced ovicidal effects; ED50 = 0.12 and 0.17 mg/ml for aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts, respectively [183]
(132)
Ethyl acetate extract
Husk of green fruits of Cocos nucifera L (Arecaceae)
Lowland Tropical Africa
In vitro egg hatching and larval development assays against H. contortus. In vivo FEC assay in sheep
Extract exhibited larvicidal (99.77% inhibition at 80 mg/ml) and ovicidal (100% inhibition at 5 mg/ml). No statistically significant activity was observed in vivo [184]
(133)
Aqueous acetone extracts
Leaves of Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. (Bignoniaceae)
West Africa
In vitro action against larval exsheathment in H. contortus and T. colubriformis
Concentration-dependent inhibition of H. contortus and T. colubriformis larval exsheathment (81.65% and 78.6%, respectively) at 600 μg/ml [185]
(134)
Ethanolic extract
In vitro effects on egg hatching, infective larvae, and adult worms of Trichostrongylus colubriformis
100% inhibition of adult worm motility after 48 of 2.5 mg/ml treatment [177]
(135)
Ethanolic extracts
Leaves of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (Bromeliaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against GIN and in vivo FECR assay in goats
100% mortality at 100 mg/ml and 73% reduction in EPG on day 9 posttreatment [126]
(136)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves, stem, and root barks of Canna bidentata Bertol. (Cannaceae)
Tropical Africa
Paralysis and death time in vitro assay against earthworm E. eugeniae
Concentration-dependent activity was observed. Root extract caused paralysis and death at 3 ± 0.00 and 5 ± 0.15 min, respectively [128]
(137)
Hydroethanolic extract
Seeds of Buchholzia coriacea Engl. (Capparaceae)
West and Central Africa
in vitro assay against L3 larvae of Haemonchus contortus and Heligmosomoides polygyrus
Significant larvicidal activity causing 94% and 100% mortality against the two parasites at 100 mg/ml, respectively, and IC50 of 16.82 and 11.20 mg/ml, respectively [117]
In vivo assay in chicken experimentally infected with Ascardia galli
Extract had no effect on worm load and FEC in the infected animals [117]
(138)
Latex
Unripped fruits of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vivo anthelmintic efficacy against Ascaridia galli and Cappilaria spp. in poultry
Latex caused 77.7% reduction in FEC after 1 week of treatment [186]
(139)
Aqueous extracts
Seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
In vivo against GI nematodes in naturally infected goats
Extract exhibited significant reduction in FEC (100%) in 7 days after drenching with 100 mg/ml [187]
(140)
In vivo assay against FEC of H. contortus, Trichostrongylus spp, Strongyloides spp, and Ostertagia spp. in sheep
Extracts showed 100% reduction in FEC in listed worms after 7 days treatment with 100 mg/ml [188].
(141)
In vivo against FEC in mixed infections in chicks
Improved haematological indices and significantly (100%) reduced FEC in chicks after 2 weeks of treatment with 1 : 10 ml (w/v) extract [116]
(142)
In vivo assay against H. contortus, Oesophagostomum spp., Trichostrongylus spp., and Cooperia spp. in goats
Improved haematological indices and a significant (100%) FECR 2 weeks after drenching with 1 : 10 ml (w/v) extract) [111]
(143)
Ethanolic extract
In vitro assay against egg hatch, larvae, and adult worms of T. colibriformis
Significant inhibition of all stages of the worm with 90.5% immobilisation after 48 h treatment at 2.5 mg/ml [177]
(144)
Ethanolic and chlorofomic extracts
Seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
In vitro activity against adult P. posthuma
Ethanolic extract was the most active, inducing paralysis and death at 6.69 ± 0.68 and 19.75 ± 0.73 min, respectively, at 75 mg/ml [142]
(145)
Ethanolic and hydroethanolic extracts
Leaves, stem bark, and seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
Comparative in vitro anthelmintic effect of extracts against adult P. posthuma
All extracts induced paralysis and caused death of worms, Seeds were more active with 7.21 ± 0.01 and 9.15 ± 0.01 paralysis and death times, respectively, at 5 mg/ml [6]
(146)
Aqueous extracts
Leaves and seeds of Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)
In vitro EHIA and larval development assays against H. contortus
Seeds extract was most active (LD50 of 49.94 mg/ml for egg hatch and 49.32 mg/ml against larval development) [94]
(147)
Hydroethanolic extract
Seeds of Garcinia kola (Heckel) (Clusiaceae)
West and South Africa
In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality assay against Heligmosomoides bakeri
18.75% inhibition of the egg-hatch at 100 mg/ml and 76.52% irreversible paralysis of the larvae at 50 mg/ml [91]
(148)
Aqueous extract
In vitro larvicidal effects against strongylid nematodes of goats
Extract exhibited larvicidal action with 53.3%, 66.6% and 73.3% mortality at 50, 100, and 150 mg/ml, respectively [189]
(149)
Hydroethanolic extract
Stem bark of Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae)
In vitro action against P. posthuma
Extract induced dose-dependent paralysis and death of the adult worms at 39.29 ± 0.12 and 54.29 ± 0.01 min, respectively, for 50 mg/ml [176]
(150)
Aqueous extracts
Seeds and stem bark of Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae)
In vitro EHIA against strongylid nematodes of small ruminants
Both extracts were ovicidal (98.9% and 100%, respectively) at 100 mg/ml [190]
(151)
Aqueous extract
Root bark of Hildebrandtia sepalosa Rendle (Convolvulaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vivo efficacy against Haemonchus spp., Trichostrogylus spp. and Oesophagostomum spp. mixed infection in sheep
A 90% reduction in FEC was observed on day 12 posttreatment [157]
(152)
Methanolic extract
Whole plant of Cyperus difformis L. (Cyperaceae)
Africa
In vitro action against P. posthuma
The extract showed a concentration-dependent paralysis (66.67 ± 1.8 min) and death (140.7 ± 2.3 min) at 20 mg/ml, respectively. It also improved the activity of albendazole, mebendazole and levamisole when 2 mg/ml of the extract was combined with these drugs [100]
(153)
Ethanolic extract
Leaves of Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC. (Ebenaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vivo assay against fecundity of adult H. contortus in sheep
Extract induced about 55.08% reduction in FEC at 200 mg/kg dose [191]
(154)
Ethanolic extract
Roots of Anthocleista djalonensis A. Chev. (Gentianaceae)
West Tropical Africa
In vitro against L3 larvae of H. polygyrus
Concentration-dependent lethal effects on L3 larvae with LC50 of 268.89 mg/ml [192]
(155)
Hydromethanolic extract
Stem bark of Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. (Humiriaceae)
West Tropical Africa
In vitro EHIA, and larval mortality assay against Heligmosomoides bakeri
Whole plant, and leaves of Picria fel-terrae Lour. (Linderniaceae)
North and East Africa
In vitro effects on various stages of H. contortus
Extracts showed considerable activity against the parasitic larval stages of H. contortus. It inhibited (94.1%) the development of L3 to L4 larvae 7 days posttreatment [193]
(157)
In vitro activity against L3, L4 and adult C. elegans (wild type, Bristol N2)
Both extracts significantly affected all 3 stages of C. elegans. It produced 50% defective egg laying phenotypes [107]
(158)
Aqueous fraction of an ethanolic extract
Whole plant of Spigelia anthelmia L. (Loganiaceae)
West Africa
In vivo efficacy in Nippostrongylus braziliensis infected rats
Efficacy of 74.35 ± 22.29% at 25 mg/kg body weight [194]
(159)
Ethanolic extract
Fruit peels of Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae)
Ethiopia
In vitro LMIA against Ascaris suum
Extracts active against larval migration with EC50 of 97 μg/mL [24]
Leaves of Memecylon umbellatum Burm. (Melastomataceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against adult Pheretima posthuma
Ethanolic extract was most potent with paralysis and death time of 29.66 ± 0.66 and 42.33 ± 1.45 min, respectively [195]
(162)
Ethanolic extract
Fruits and seeds of Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre (Menispermaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against adult earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae, H. placei, and T. saginata
Seed extract caused paralysis and death at 18 ± 0.35 and 133 ± 3.75 min, respectively, against E. Eugeniae [196]
(163)
Feed for snails
Leaves of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae)
West Africa
In vivo against roundworms in snails (Achatina achatina)
Significant prevention of parasitisation (c2 (1) = 14.97; ) was observed in the treated snails [197]
(164)
Methanolic extract
Stem bark of Pycnanthus angolensis (Welw.) Warb. (Myristicaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against adult earthworms Eudrilus eugeniae, H. placei, and T. saginata
Extract showed potent activity against all worms studied. At 80 mg/ml, paralysis occurred in the earthworm at 41 ± 1.81 min and death at 67 ± 2.60 min [196]
(165)
Ethanolic extracts
Flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry (Myrtaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against GIN and in vivo FECR assay in goats
100% mortality at 100 mg/ml and 85% FECR on day 9 posttreatment [126]
(166)
Hydroethanolic and 1:1 DCM: methanolic extracts
Leaves, trunk bark and root bark of Lophira lanceolata Tiegh. ex Keay (Ochnaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro activity against adult O. ochengi and L4 larvae of various strains of C. elegans
All extracts exhibited 100% inhibition of O. ochengi at 20 μg/mL after 72 h. Ethanolic extract of the leaves was the most active against the drug-resistant strains [68]
(167)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves of Adenia lobata Engl. (Passifloraceae)
Central Africa
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Both extracts were active with EC50 of 5 μg/ml each against the worms [145]
(168)
Ethyl acetate and methanloic extracts
Leaves of Plumbago zeylanica L. (Plumbaginaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro effects on paralysis and mortality of P. posthuma
Ethyl acetate extract was the most active of the two causing paralysis and death at 59.85 ± 3.35 and 80.55 ± 2.66 min, respectively [198]
(169)
Aqueous and ethanolic extract
Leaves and roots of Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. (Polygonaceae)
East Africa
In vitro ovicidal and larvicidal activity against H. contortus
ED50 = 0.11 μg/mL of aqueous extract against egg hatch [158]
(170)
Methanolic extract
Bark of Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. (Rhamnaceae)
North Africa
In vitro EHIA, adult motility, and larval development assay against H. contortus and in vivo against H. contortus, T. circumcincta, and T. ovis in sheep.
LC50 = 676.08 and 398.11 μg/ml against egg hatch and larval development, respectively. FECR (84.7%) was recorded on day 13 post 3.0 g/kg treatment [97]
(171)
Hydroethanolic extract
Root bark of Paullinia pinnata L. (Sapindaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro action against C. elegans larvae
Extract caused 14.8% inhibition of larvae (85.2% survival) [149]
(172)
Hydroethanolic extract
In vitro mortality assay against larvae of C. elegans, Toxocara cati, Ancylostooma caninum, and Trichuris vulpis. EHIA and LMIA against H. contortus
Extract was active against some of the test organisms. C. elegans (LC50 of 2.5 mg/ml), T. cati (LC50 of 112 μg/mL), and T. vulpis (LC50 = 17 μg/mL) [199].
(173)
Aqueous-acetone extract, ethyl acetate, and water partitions
In vitro action against C. elegans larvae
Ethyl acetate partition was more effective (LC50 = 1.1 mg/ml) than the crude extract (LC50 = 1.9 mg/ml) and water fraction (LC50 = 2.9 mg/ml) [200]
(174)
PAC fractions
In vitro action against C. elegans larvae
All PAC fractions exhibited a minimum of 70% inhibition against the larvae [200]
(175)
Methanolic and chloromethylenic extracts
Leaves and roots of Paullinia pinnata L. (Sapindaceae)
In vitro activity against Rhabditis pseudoelongata
Extracts of both parts were active against the worm with EC50 of 2.5 μg/ml [145]
(176)
Aqueous methanolic extract
Aerial parts of Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophulariaceae)
North Africa
In vitro activity against R. spiralis and A. galli
Extract produced relative paralysis index of 2.08 at 40 mg/ml against A. galli [201]
(177)
Methanolic extract
Dried fruits of Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. (Simaroubaceae)
Tropical East Africa
In vivo activity against Dactylogyrus intermedius in goldfish
Extract showed profound activity against the parasites (EC50 = 49.96 mg/L) [113]
(178)
Aqueous and alcoholic extracts
Leaves of Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae)
Tropical Africa
In vitro assay against motility of Marshallagia marshalli
Extracts significantly inhibited the motility of the worms, causing 0.44 death rate at 75 mg/ml [77]
(179)
Aqueous and methanolic extracts
In vitro inhibition of motility against H. contortus and in vivo FEC assay against H. contortus, T. axei, T. colubriformis, O. columbianum, S. Papillosus and T. ovis in sheep
Extracts significantly inhibited worm motility at 6 h postexposure and caused a reduction in FEC (73.6% on day 5 posttreatment with methanolic extract at 3.0 g/kg) [202]
