A Comprehensive Review with Future Prospects on the Medicinal Properties and Biological Activities of Curcuma caesia Roxb.

Table 2

Medicinal and pharmacological properties of Curcuma caesia.

Part	Extraction/isolation methodology	Medicinal and pharmacological properties	Findings	References
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with methanol	Antioxidant, antidiabetic activity	IC50 values for α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition were found to be 442.92 ± 10.05 μg/mL and 95.40 ± 9.74 μg/mL, respectively. The extract also successfully scavenged superoxide and hydroxyl ions	Majumder et al. [17]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with chloroform, dichloromethane, acetone, ethyl acetate, methanol, and ethanol	Antidiabetic activity	Chloroform and methanol fraction in the ratio of 80 : 20 showed highest α-amylase inhibition (IC50 = 80.13 μg/mL)	Jain and Parihar, [18]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with methanol	Analgesic, anti-inflammatory activity	Significant analgesic activity of C. caesia extract was observed in an acetic acid-induced writhing model and in a hot plate test. Extract also showed significant () anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the paw edema volume in carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats in the late phase (3 to 5 h) and decreased the dry weight of granuloma	Sawant et al. [19]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with methanol	Antioxidant, antidepressant activity	The IC50 values for scavenging free radicals for DPPH, nitric oxide, superoxide, hydroxyl, peroxynitrite, and hypochlorous acid were 94.03 ± 0.67 μg/mL, 155.59 ± 3.03 μg/mL, 68.10 ± 1.24 μg/mL, 21.07 ± 1.78 μg/mL, 260.56 ± 12.65 μg/mL, and 33.33 ± 0.52 μg/mL, respectively. In the in vivo test, C. caesia extract was observed significantly () and reduced the onset and prolongation of rat sleep duration as well as decreased the immobility periods in both FST and TST	Kamarkar et al. [20]
				Kamarkar et al. [21]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with methanol	Analgesic, locomotor depressant, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant activity	Extract significantly () reduced the writhes with 75.71% and 90.39% protection compared to the control group. Treatment with the extract also exhibited 51.95% and 79.99% reduction in motor activity. For anticonvulsion activity, the onset of convulsions was significantly () delayed, which led to the animal’s survival. For muscle relaxant activity, the extract significantly () and dose-dependently decreased the fall-off time in mice	Karmakar et al. [22]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with ethanol	Smooth muscle relaxant activity	The extract concentration dependently relaxed the carbachol (1 μM)-induced precontractions in isolated Guinea pig trachea with the IC50 value of 239.36 μg/mL	Arulmozhi et al. [23]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with ethanol	Thrombolytic activity	The ethanolic C. caesia extract was found to have significant thrombolytic activity (49.18 ± 3.41%) compared to the effect of streptokinase (71.54 ± 3.26%) used as the positive control and water (2.96 ± 0.28%) used as the negative control in the experiment	Fathima et al. [24]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with alcohol and water	Thrombolytic activity	Percentage of clot lysis by C. caesia rhizome extracts (38.75 ± 2.217%) and synthesized silver nanoparticle (51%) was statistically significant () compared to the positive control streptokinase and negative control water	Bharathi et al. [25]
Rhizome	Hydrodistillation	Antioxidant and antibacterial activities	C. caesia essential oil possessed 22.5 ± 0.12 μg GAE/μL oil content of phenolics, IC50 6.3 ± 0.06 μL DPPH scavenging activity, and EC50 1.6 ± 0.1 μL ferric reducing power. The essential oil also had antibacterial activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, and E. coli	Angel et al. [26]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with hexane and methanol	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and tumor cell proliferation inhibitory activities	The hexane and methanolic extracts of C. caesia showed LPO inhibition by 31 and 43%, and COX-2 enzyme by 29 and 38%, respectively. The extracts also inhibited the growth of human tumor cells	Liu et al. [27]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with ethanol	Antiulcer activity	C. caesia showed significant ulceroprotective effect against gastric ulcer in albino rats by reducing the ulcer index (4.18 ± 0.60), volume of gastric juice (1.14 ± 0.10 mL/4 hr), free (46.40 ± 2.13 mEq/L) and total acidity (66.80 ± 1.35 mEq/L), pepsin along with increased production of mucus	Das et al. [28]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with hexane, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water	Antioxidant activity	The TPC value for the extracts were in the range of 26.43 ± 0.4–109.41 ± 0.36 mg GAE/g extract. Result also revealed that samples extracted with more polar solvents had higher antioxidant activity	Reenu et al. [29]
Rhizome	Isolation of starch with cellulase	Antioxidant activity	Total phenolic and curcumin contents and DPPH antioxidant capacity of C. caesia starches was 4.1 ± 0.2 mg FAE/g starch, 0.015 ± 0.001 mg/g starch, and 14.7 ± 0.3% scavenging, respectively	Hung and Duyen [30]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone, methanol, and water	Antibacterial activity	Higher inhibitory action was detected against S. aureus (acetone extract, zone of inhibition = 22 ± 1.9 mm), and S. marcescens (chloroform extract, zone of inhibition = 27 ± 1.9 mm)	Thomas and Jose [31]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with ethanol	Antimycobacterial activity	Ethanolic extract showed antimycobacterial activity with MIC value 125 μg/mL against M. tuberculosis H37Rv, and cytotoxic effect on THP-1 macrophages with IC50 value 500 μg/mL	Gupta et al. [32]; Ghosh [33]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with ethanol, water	Antibacterial, antifungal activity	Ethanolic extract of C. caesia was effective against A. flavus, with 11 mm zone of inhibition recorded	Harit et al. [34]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with ethanol	Antibacterial and antifungal activities	Antifungal assay showed the MIC values as 22 mg/mL (Botrytis cinerea), 27 mg/mL (Fusarium oxysporum), and 17 mg/mL (Rhizopus oryzae). The MIC values for the antibacterial effect was 267 mg/mL (Serratia marcescens), 291 mg/mL (Erwinia herbicola), 345 mg/mL (Xanthomonas sp.), and 467 mg/mL (Arthrobacter chlorophenolicus)	Ghosh et al. [35]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with methanol	Antitumor and antioxidant activities	Methanolic extract exhibited cytotoxicity effect (IC50 90.70 ± 8.37 mg/mL) on EAC cell line. Extract also significantly () reduced tumor volume, tumor weight, viable cell count, and increased the lifespan percentage (57.14 and 88.09%) of EAC-treated mice	Karmakar et al. [36]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with methanol	Anticancer activity	Treatment of mice with C. caesia extract attenuated the increased activities of the marker enzymes (AST, ALT, ALP, and AChE), which was caused by DEN administration	Hadem et al. [37]
Rhizome	Maceration extraction with methanol	Protective activity against genotoxicity	The methanolic extract was found to scavenge the free radicals ABTS^+ (IC50 = 51.994 μg/mL) and reduce the number of micronuclei (41.77–68.75%). The levels of serum SGPT, SGOT, GSH, and GR also decreased with the pretreatment of the extract	Mazumder and Devi [38]
Rhizome	Soxhlet extraction with hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water	Antioxidant and anticancer activities	Hexane extract was found to possess remarkable antioxidant activity (1200 mgAAE/100 g) and dose-dependent inhibition in HepG2 cell lines (IC50 = 0.976 μg/mL)	Mukuthan et al. [39]
Rhizome, leaves, stem	Soxhlet extraction with water, methanol, acetone, and chloroform	Antibacterial activity	The rhizome extracts were found to be more effective in inhibiting the bacterial growth as compared to stem and leaf. Methanol and chloroform extracts showed highest activity index against B. cereus (0.55) and K. pneumoniae (0.59), respectively	Pandey and Gupta [40]
Leaves	Maceration extraction with methanol	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activities	Extract showed antibacterial effect against B. cereus (14.95 ± 0.71 mm), D. pneumoniae (14.65 ± 0.71 mm), M. glutamicum (12.50 ± 0.24 mm), and S. pyogenes (13.71 ± 0.41 mm). The extract also had the highest antioxidant activity (73.3 ± 0.45%) at the concentration of 250 μg/mL and showed 15% macrophage yeast digestion	Bhardwaj et al. [41]
Leaves	Hydrodistillation	Antioxidants and anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity	Leaf oil contained phenolics (2.13 ± 0.027 mg/mL) and flavonoids (11.36 ± 0.096 mg/mL) and exhibited antioxidant (IC50 value = 1.487 μg/mL), anti-inflammatory (182.5 μg/mL), and antimicrobial potential against B. subtilis, B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhimurium, A. fumigatus, A. niger, S. cerevisiae, and C. albicans	Borah et al. [42]