Morphology and Depositional Processes of a Carbonate-Filled Canyon in the Carboniferous KT-II Formation of the Eastern Precaspian Basin, Kazakhstan: Insight from 3D Seismic Data

Wu, Jiapeng; Cheng, Xiaodong; Sheng, Shanbo; Fan, Leyuan; Guo, Kai; Li, Xining; Diao, Wan; Tai, Unmei; Jin, Shutang; Zhang, Shengbin; Song, Xinxin

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3969979

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Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 3969979 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3969979

Morphology and Depositional Processes of a Carbonate-Filled Canyon in the Carboniferous KT-II Formation of the Eastern Precaspian Basin, Kazakhstan: Insight from 3D Seismic Data

Jiapeng Wu,¹Xiaodong Cheng,¹Shanbo Sheng,²Leyuan Fan,¹Kai Guo,¹Xining Li,¹Wan Diao,³Unmei Tai,¹Shutang Jin,²Shengbin Zhang,¹and Xinxin Song⁴

Academic Editor: Mercè Corbella

Received06 Jan 2023

Revised03 Aug 2023

Accepted30 Aug 2023

Published05 Oct 2023

Abstract

Canyons in carbonate depositional settings, as important elements of the source-to-sink system, remain poorly studied compared to those in siliciclastic depositional environments. The latest high-resolution three-dimensional seismic data, well logs, and core data at the eastern edge of the Precaspian Basin are used to investigate the geomorphology, infillings, and depositional process of a unique carbonate-filled canyon in the Carboniferous KT-II formation parallel to the carbonate platform, which is distinct from other slope-perpendicular canyons. The canyon has a total length of more than 52.3 km with a nearly N-S orientation and an S-shaped geometry, and the whole canyon can be divided into three segments by two knickpoints. The slope-parallel orientation of the canyon is mainly controlled by the palaeogeomorphology and reverse faults. Due to the collision of the Kazakh and European plates in the early-middle Visean (early Carboniferous), the canyon was formed in a northern tilted, elongated, and restricted palaeotopographic feature between uplifts. The development of reverse faults related to tectonic movement controlled the variations in the width of the canyon and the positions of the knickpoints. Tectonics controlled the orientation and formation of the canyon, while sedimentary processes contributed to its infilling. The well-seismic tie analysis indicated two distinct periods of the canyon fillings, Ss1 and Ss2, which were separated by a second-order sequence boundary. The lower part contained sediments supplied by both sides of the canyon through channels or gullies, and the upper part was dominated by a carbonate platform that prograded from the eastern side of the canyon. The evolution of the canyon can be subdivided into three stages. The increasing stage was mainly characterized by significant upslope erosion through headward retrogressive mass failures in the slope-parallel confined negative relief to form the canyon during the lowstand system tract of Ss1. Subsequently, in the early filling stage, the carbonate factory was productive during the highstand, and massive excess carbonate sediments were transported into the adjacent canyon by channels or gullies on both sides and deposited. The canyon was basically filled, and the morphology became much gentler. During the subsequent late filling stage, the carbonate platform was flooded again during the highstand, and the production rates of the carbonate factory greatly increased. The lateral progradation of carbonate platforms accelerated on the canyon of the early filling stage and further into the inner sag.

1. Introduction

Submarine canyon systems, as major conduits for transporting sediments in both siliciclastic and carbonate environments [1–5], have been widely studied for their tectonic movement, sedimentary information, and climate signals, which were recorded during the evolutionary history of the canyon [1, 6–10], as well as significant amounts of hydrocarbon reservoirs discovered within canyon fillings [11, 12].

Among numerous former studies, canyons in siliciclastic settings have drawn more attention [13, 14], whereas submarine canyons in carbonate depositional environments remain relatively poorly documented [14]. Due to the downslope gravity processes, most of the reported canyons are perpendicular or oblique to the slopes [7, 13, 15, 16]. Owing to some special geological settings, canyons may run parallel to slopes, for example, the Central Canyon in the Qiongdongnan Basin of the South China Sea [17–21]. However, canyons parallel or subparallel to the slope in carbonate sedimentary environments have rarely been reported. Canyons in carbonate settings are always characterized by using multibeam bathymetry [15, 22], two-dimensional (2D) seismic lines [23–27], and outcrops [28–30]. Thus, it is rarely possible for former studies to demonstrate the depositional process of the canyon as a whole sedimentary unit with a combined analysis of geomorphic features and sediment fillings. Carbonate canyons are far less understood [14, 30]. With improvements in seismic techniques and seismic image resolution, especially for the three-dimensional (3D) seismic analysis used for canyon studies, the morphology, depositional elements, and depositional dynamics of submarine canyons have been greatly enhanced [17, 31–36].

The present study takes a canyon that extends parallel to the open carbonate platform as the study object and uses high-resolution 3D seismic data, well logs, and core data to document the geomorphology, infillings, and depositional process of the Carboniferous carbonate-filled canyon (CFC). Studying this canyon is interesting because this buried canyon is completely filled with carbonate, it is parallel to the open carbonate platform, and, in contrast to other canyons connecting the continental shelf and the slope, this canyon formed in the inner sag inside the shallow open carbonate platform.

2. Geological Setting

The Precaspian Basin, located in the southeast Eastern European craton (Figure 1), is a large elliptical basin covering more than . In the west and north, the basin is adjacent to the Russian platform. It is bounded to the South Emba fold belt and the Karpinskiy fold zone to the south and southeast, respectively, and the eastern boundary is the south end of the Ural fold belt [37–39] (Figure 2). The tectonic evolution of the Precaspian Basin involved [40] rifting during the Devonian, [1] passive and transform continental margins of palaeocontinents during the Carboniferous, and [2] plate collisions (European, Kazakh, and Turan plates) at the end of the Permian [37, 41, 42] (Figure 3).

During basin evolution, very thick sediments were deposited in the Precaspian Basin starting in the Middle Devonian. The sedimentary strata of the basin can be divided into two major packages (presalt and postsalt), separated by the Kungurian salt [37] (Figure 3). At the end of the early Permian, the European plate collided with the Kazakh plate to the east (Ural Mountains orogeny), and then, the Precaspian Basin progressively became isolated from the open sea, leading to the deposition of a considerable amount of evaporites, i.e., the Kungurian salt (Figure 3). The presalt succession reached a depth of approximately 6000 m towards the west, which is a westerly dipping ramp [37]. In the study area, in the eastern part of the Enbeksk-Zharamysskaya Uplift, the presalt succession is mainly composed of platform carbonate units and clastic sediments deposited from the mid-Devonian to early Permian [43, 44] (Figure 3). The collision started in the late Visean, early Carboniferous, which gradually changed the deposition from passive continental margin clastic deposition to carbonate deposition [37, 38, 45] (Figure 3).

The Carboniferous stratum, the main component of presalt carbonate strata, can be divided into three lithological assemblages upwards, which are the KT-II, MKT, and KT-I formations (Figure 3). The target interval of this work is the KT-II formation, which is a set of platform carbonate deposits comprising numerous shallowing-upward parasequences. On the eastern margin of the Precaspian Basin, the main sedimentary facies of KT-II are open platform facies and restricted platform facies, and the main sedimentary microfacies include shoal, tidal channel, intershoal, and lagoon microfacies [47–49]. During the deposition of KT-II, in the late Visean-early Moscovian, from the Zhanazhol oilfield to the study area, on the eastern edge of the Enbeksk-Zharamysskaya Uplift, there was a long strip-shaped, N-S-extending open carbonate platform, with the Ural trough to the east and the platform inner sag to the west [42, 46–49] (Figures 2 and 4).

3. Data and Methods

The data utilized in this study were provided by the Aktyubin subsidiary of China National Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Company Ltd. (CNODC), including two 3D seismic volumes with an area of 2000 km², well logs, core data, and lithological data from four exploration wells. To eliminate the influence of salt on seismic imaging of presalt strata, the seismic data of this area were processed by prestack depth migration (PSDM). The dominant frequency of the seismic data is approximately 30 Hz, with a vertical resolution of 50 m and a bin spacing of . All vertical scales of the seismic profiles shown in this paper are in units of depth.

The PSDM seismic profiles were used for seismic-well ties to determine the key seismic reflections (the top interface of KT-II, the bottom of KT-II, the top of MKT, etc.) and canyon deposits, which were discerned through seismic facies (amplitude, frequency, and continuity) and seismic reflection termination (on-lap, downlap, truncation, etc.) (Figures 5(a)–5(f)). All these discontinuities were traced in the whole study area. The seismic data were interpreted, and the coherence slices were generated using the Seiswork module of LandMark 5000. The PostStack/PAL module in LandMark 5000 was utilized to obtain seismic data flattened along horizon, RMS, and coherence attribute maps along the horizon. In addition, the 3D visualization module in Petrel 2015 was used to generate the topographic map of the CFC and palaeogeomorphologic map of KT-II.

(a)

(b)

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Figure 5

(a–d) Seismic profiles of the head segment (a, b), middle segment (c), and lower segment (d) (green dotted lines in Figure 4) of the canyon, showing the morphological features of the canyon in different segments. The head segment is the narrowest, the middle segment is the widest, and the lower segment is the deepest. See the text in Section 4.1 for detailed descriptions. The relationship between reverse faults and the canyon is shown. (e) Seismic profiles along the canyon thalweg (red line in Figure 4), showing that the canyon is generally a gentle ramp. Two knickpoints with abrupt morphologic changes subdivide the canyon into three segments. (f) Vertical seismic profile (red dotted line in Figure 4) across the study area, showing the distribution of canyons and carbonate platforms.

To accurately express geomorphic features of the CFC, many lines were used to measure the thalweg depth, width, etc., to determine parameters such as the sinuosity and thalweg slope gradient of the canyon (Figure 4). Referring to the quantitative methods used by Catterall et al. [50] and Liang et al. [20], intensive measurements were carried out for places where the local geomorphic features changed dramatically.

To calculate the sinuosity and slope gradient, the formulas of Huang et al. [51] were applied. The main formulas and data are shown as follows: where is the sinuosity, is the thalweg length, is the head-to-foot distance, is the head-to-foot gradient, and is the depth range.

4. Results

4.1. Geomorphology of the Canyon

The CFC in this study is located in the inner sag in the western part of the KT-II open carbonate platform (Figure 4). The CFC is more than 50 km long, 100-400 m deep, and approximately 1-5 km wide (Figure 6), the dimensions of which are similar to those of the canyons along the slopes of isolated carbonate platforms in the Xisha Archipelago [52]. Based on the quantitative measurement of the depth, width, and sinuosity, the CFC in the study area was subdivided into three segments, i.e., (i) head segment, (ii) middle segment, and (iii) lower segment, by two obvious knickpoints where the CFC became narrower and the thalweg slope was steeper [53, 54]. The head segment is the first 20 km, and the lower segment is located between 35.8 and 52.3 km. The middle segment, from 20 to 35.8 km, is the shortest segment of the CFC in the study area. In plan view, the CFC shows an overall N-S extension, which is generally parallel to the KT-II open carbonate platform, an S-shaped geometry, and a generally gentle ramp along its thalweg slope profile (Figures 4 and 5(e)). To quantify the geomorphology of the CFC, the first measurement line at the southernmost end of the study area was taken as the starting point of the CFC (Figure 4). The 46.5-52.3 km interval of the northernmost section of the CFC was not fully covered by 3D seismic data, and the geomorphological characteristics of this part were not described (Figures 4 and 6(c)).

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(b)

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Figure 6

Measurement results of the quantification of the studied CFC geomorphology. The CFC thalweg in the first measuring line, which is in the southwestern-most corner of the study area, is referred to as the origin of the -axis (see the supplementary Figure_6_data.pdf). (a) Vertically exaggerated plot displaying changes in the thalweg slope gradient and in the CFC depth along the mapped length of the studied canyon. (b) Vertically exaggerated plot showing changes in the CFC width along the mapped length of the studied canyon. (c) 3D view of the studied CFC, focusing on the change in the canyon depth and width among the three segments of the canyon (see the location in Figure 4).

In the head segment, which is the narrowest and straightest segment, the CFC has a SSW to NNE trend and is slightly sinuous (with a sinuosity of 1.01°) (Figure 6(c)). Over the first 17.71 km, the thalweg slope is 1.11°, and the depth (from 95 m to 295 m deep) and width (from 1.48 km to 2.83 km wide) of the canyon gradually increase with little fluctuation (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). However, between 17.71 and 20 km, a concave-up section of the thalweg profile at approximately 4.01° was observed (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). The width and depth of the CFC decreased significantly to 1.1 km and 85 m, respectively (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). The knickpoint of the steep slope at 20 km is knickpoint 1 (K1), which is the boundary between the head segment and middle segment, after which point the thalweg slope becomes steep and the depth of the canyon increases rapidly (Figures 5(e) and 6(c)).

The middle segment, which is the widest segment on average, is slightly S-shaped in plan view and has an overall SW-NE orientation with a sinuosity of 1.12°. From 20 to 27.4 km, the CFC trends NW and then changes abruptly to NE at 27.4 km. Within the initial part of the middle segment (20-20.7 km), the thalweg slope is the steepest of the entire study area, at approximately 17.69°, and the depth (from 80 m to 230 m deep) and width (from 1.1 km to 2.26 km wide) of the CFC increase rapidly in a short distance, similar to a “waterfall” in the canyon. Throughout the adjacent part downslope of the CFC (20.7-32.3 km), with the thalweg slope at approximately 1.95°, constant increases in the depth and width of the canyon are observed (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). In the first 6.7 km of this part, the width increases rapidly (from 2.26 km to 5.12 km wide), reaching a width of 5.12 km at 27.4 km, while in the following 4.9 km, the depth increases rapidly (from 175 m to 360 m deep), reaching a depth of 360 m at 32.3 km of the CFC (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). Similar to the head segment, a concave-up section of the thalweg longitudinal profile at approximately 2.92° is also observed between 32.25 and 35.8 km. The depth (from 260 m to 185 m deep) and width (from 2.93 km to 1.92 km wide) of the CFC decrease rapidly throughout the remaining part of the middle segment (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). The vertex of this concave-up section at 35.8 km is knickpoint 2 (K2), marking the boundary between the middle segment and the lower segment (Figures 5(e) and 6(c)).

In the lower segment, the canyon is S-shaped in plan view with the gentlest thalweg slope and highest sinuosity of 1.17° among the three segments (Figure 6(c)). In the downstream direction from 35.8 km to 46.5 km, it trends NW and then changes abruptly to NNE at 46.5 km, with an overall SE-NW orientation of this segment (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). Between 35.8 and 36.4 km, another “waterfall” with a steep thalweg slope of approximately 15.66° is observed. Similar to the middle segment, the CFC depth (from 185 m to 355 m deep) increases rapidly in this short section (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)). Throughout the remaining part of the lower segment, from 36.4 km to the end of the canyon in the study area, overall increases in the depth (from 355 m to 415 m deep) and width (from 1.78 km to 3.45 km wide) of the CFC are present (Figures 6(a) and 6(b)).

4.2. Seismic Facies and Depositional Interpretations Associated with the CFC

Six kinds of seismic facies associated with the CFC were identified based on the external geometry and internal configuration and texture, such as the amplitude, frequency, and continuity of seismic reflection (Figures 7–9 and Table 1). Seismic facies were then calibrated and tied to different depositional elements based on the well logs and lithological data collected from several exploration wells (Figures 8 and 9).

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Figure 7

(a) RMS amplitude map of the CFC. The canyon filling deposits are dominated by low RMS values, while both flanks of the canyon are dominated by high RMS values. A series of small gullies are located in the head segment of the canyon, and two channels are located in the middle and lower segments, with low RMS amplitude values. (b) Coherence map along the canyon bottom. The canyon boundaries, gullies, and channels display dark-coloured coherence patterns, whereas the canyon filling deposits exhibit light-coloured coherence patterns. See the position in Figure 4. (c) Two channels of the carbonate platform in the seismic profile show chaotic weak amplitudes. See the position in (a) (purple dotted line). (d, e) Several gullies of the carbonate platform in the seismic profiles on both sides of the CFC’s head segment show weak amplitudes and chaotic features with concave shapes, which are narrower and shallower than the channels. See the position in (a) (red and blue dotted lines).

Figure 9

Seismic profiles showing six seismic facies found in the studied CFC and proximal strata. (a–d) Six seismic facies. (e–g) Core photographs of the aggrading carbonate platform (seismic facies 3 in (b)) of well B, mainly grey limestone. (h–k) Thin section photographs of carbonate platform facies in KT-II. (l, m) Thin section photographs of Visean delta foresets. (h) Sparry algal foraminiferal limestone of the aggrading platform (seismic facies 3 in (b)) in well B. (i) Sparry foraminiferal oolitic limestone of the aggrading platform (seismic facies 3 in (b)) in well B. (j) Sparry clastic limestone of the progradational platform (seismic facies 4 in (c)) in well C. (k) Sparry foraminiferal limestone of the progradational platform (seismic facies 4 in (c)) in well C. (l) Fine-grained feldspar lithic sandstone of delta foresets (seismic facies 5 in (c)) in well C. (m) Medium-grained feldspathic quartz sandstone of delta foresets (seismic facies 4 in (c)) in well C.

Seismic facies 1 is interpreted as canyon fill deposits. The lithological data and gamma ray (GR) log from well A indicate mainly thick limestone with thin-bedded argillaceous limestone and marlite (Figure 9(a)). Seismic facies 2 is interpreted as platform slope deposits. The lithological data and logs from well A reveal three coarsening-upward successions, each composed of lower argillaceous limestone and marlite and upper limestone (Figure 9(a)). Seismic facies 3 is interpreted as aggrading carbonate platform deposits (Figures 9(b) and 9(e)–9(i)). The associated deposits are commonly sheet-like, and internal reflectors are parallel and straight to slightly wavy. According to the well logs and lithological data from well B, this seismic facies is pure thick limestone. Bachtel et al. [55] reported similar facies and deposits in the carbonate platform offshore Indonesia. Seismic facies 4 is a progradational carbonate platform (Figures 9(c) and 9(g)–9(k)). These are prograding platform clinoforms associated with the platform margin, reef flat, and platform interior facies indicated by offlapping reflections. Referring to the well logs and lithological data from well C, the main lithology is limestone with a thin layer of lime mudstone. Seismic facies 5 is a delta front deposit, as has been verified by the results from seismic-well ties. The GR value in well C is relatively high, reflecting the muddy sedimentary background, in which the thin box- or funnel-shaped GR log represents fine sand or silty sand deposition (Figures 9(c), 9(l), and 9(m)). Seismic facies 6 is composed of muddy shelf deposits. According to well D, the GR log is straight with high values, and the lithofacies is mainly mudstone with thin layers of fine sand or siltstone (Figure 9(d)).

4.3. Sequence Stratigraphic Correlation between the CFC and Platform

The current study integrates seismic and well data to investigate the sequence stratigraphic correlation between canyon infillings and platform deposition according to sequence stratigraphy, with the chronostratigraphic approach, which emphasizes studying rock units bounded by time lines [56].

To determine the relationship between the carbonate platform and the CFC, the carbonate platform strata were correlated and contrasted with the canyon infill deposits on a second-order sequence scale considering seismic resolution (Figures 5(c) and 5(d)). According to the results of the sequence stratigraphic study of the wells and seismic-well ties, the studied KT-II strata, which are mainly composed of canyon fill and carbonate platform deposits, consist of two second-order sequences, Ss1 and Ss2. Each of the second-order sequences includes a lowstand system tract (LST) and a transgressive system tract (TST) in the lower part and a highstand system tract (HST) in the upper part, separated by the maximum flooding surface.

4.3.1. Characteristics of Sequence Boundaries in the Well

The KT-II carbonate sequences developed on the shallow marine carbonate platform adjacent to the Ural trough in the east and are mainly composed of carbonate shoal deposits in the study area (Figures 2 and 4). The lithology is basically sparry grain limestone, followed by packstones and marl [46, 48]. The GR curve is flat with low values, indicating a low shale content and pure carbonate (Figure 9(b)). Although the KT-II strata are relatively pure limestone overall, the KT-II deposit, which is separated by the second-order sequence boundary, i.e., the unconformity between Bashkirian and Moskovian strata, has changed obviously.

According to the lithology of well A, which was drilled into the CFC, the canyon deposits can be divided into two second-order sequences, Ss1 and Ss2, which are separated by SB1. The lithology of Ss1 is mainly sparry limestone, so the GR curve is straight with a thick box shape. For an increase in the shale content upwards above the sequence boundary, the shape of the logging curves changes obviously, the GR value increases, and the DT value decreases [46, 48] (Figure 10). The main lithology of Ss2 changes into sparry bioclastic limestone, alga-gobbet limestone and mudstone, and muddy micrite limestone [46, 48] (Figure 10). In Ss2, there are three system tracts, and the coarsening-upward HST succession is predominant (Figure 10).

4.3.2. Seismic Sequence Stratigraphic Correlation

Based on the analysis of the sequence division, well correlation, and seismic-well ties of well A drilled into the CFC and other multiple exploration wells in the study area, the sequence boundary was found via several representative seismic lines first and then traced throughout the entire study area.

The carbonate platform of KT-II, showing low-frequency and weak-amplitude reflections (seismic facies 3), is in conformable contact with the underlying middle Visean clastic deposition (seismic facies 5 and 6) (Figures 5 and 8). Canyon fill deposits, which are overlain by platform slope deposits (seismic facies 2), exhibit medium-weak amplitudes and chaotic or subparallel reflections (seismic facies 1) truncated with the surrounding middle Visean clastic deposits (seismic facies 5 and 6), forming a U-shaped canyon basal unconformity (Figure 5).

The sequence boundary is located in the interiors of open platform deposits with intermittent and weak reflections (Figure 5(c)). According to the seismic-well tie analysis between seismic data and well A, the only well in the study area drilled into the CFC, the shale contents of Ss2 carbonate deposits, which are above sequence boundary SB1, are higher compared to those of Ss1 (Figure 10). The CFC was nearly completely filled during Ss1 deposition. The canyon infillings and platform deposits of Ss1 both have low amplitudes and moderate- to low-continuity reflections with canyon infillings that are more chaotic (Figures 5 and 9(a)).

Above the sequence boundary, the open platform deposits are layered deposits with high continuity and parallel seismic reflections (seismic facies 3) (Figures 5 and 9(b)), while towards the CFC, the high-continuity prograding carbonate platform with higher amplitude (seismic facies 4) (Figures 5 and 9(c)), resulting from the sedimentary environment change and increasing shale content, downlaps onto the canyon fill deposits of Ss1.

The RMS map between SB1 and the basal surface of KT-II shows some linear low-amplitude reflections, which are small gullies located in the head segment and one channel each in the middle segment and lower segment in Ss1, delivering sediments into the CFC (Figures 7 and 11(a)). These channels can also be distinguished as dark-coloured linear features in the flattened horizontal coherence slice at 100 m below SB1 (Figure 12(a)).

However, in Ss2, obvious shifts in the position of the platform margin occurred due to westward progradation, which shows large-scale linear low-amplitude reflections in the RMS map between the top surface of KT-II and SB1 (Figure 11(b)). These are channels perpendicular to the slope originating close to the platform edge, which are transported and filled with coarse carbonate debris derived from the platform (Figure 11(b)). The progradation of the platform shows grey-coloured coherence patterns with convex-westward plan-form geometries, as visible in plan view (Figure 12(b)). The development of clinoform geometries crossed the canyon fillings, and the platform margin expanded (Figure 12(b)).

5. Discussion

5.1. Canyon Origin

The canyons reported worldwide are now grouped into three main types: slope-confined canyons (also named blind canyons or headless canyons), whose heads terminate on the slope, and canyons that incise the shelf, which connect with and without a major river system [13, 21, 51]. According to this, the CFC can most likely be defined as a blind canyon. The formation of blind canyons has been explained by fluid seepage-induced slope failure [57], a combination of slope failure and retrogressive erosion [13, 16, 51], and the interplay of downslope processes and along-slope currents [58] that have been recently reported. Although some slope-parallel negative bedforms, such as moat channels, are mainly caused by bottom currents and some canyons and channels are also controlled by along-slope sedimentary processes in addition to downslope gravity processes [35, 36, 59–61], there is now no obvious evidence that the CFC has a direct connection with fluvial systems and bottom currents, so the most likely formation mechanism of the CFC is upslope erosion through headward retrogressive mass failures.

Due to the collision of the Kazakh and European plates, the Uralian orogeny began to develop in the early-mid-Visean and early Carboniferous, on the eastern flank of the Precaspian Basin [38, 41], and the eastern margin of the Precaspian Basin was gradually compressed and uplifted, which had an important impact on the palaeogeomorphology of the study area. The structure of KT-II was modified by later tectonic activities, and the cast method [62, 63] was used to restore the palaeogeomorphology before the deposition of the CFC with two selected reference interfaces: the top of the MKT and the bottom of the canyon and bottom of KT-II (Figure 13). For minor erosion in the 3D seismic survey, the resultant cast map can be used to interpret the relative relief of the palaeogeomorphology before the deposition of the CFC.

A confined elongated negative relief parallel to the following KT-II carbonate platform was formed between the uplifts due to the compressional orogeny (Figure 13). Geomorphic factors have a very important influence on the development and evolution of the canyon [18–21, 64], and the canyon was easily formed in the area limited by the uplifts on both sides. In addition, the uplift in the middle of the 3D survey remained topographically high enough to provide proper environments conducive for shallow-water carbonate platform production. For instance, carbonate factories developed on submerged structural highs in the Isili Basin [30]. For the low sea level in late Visean and the confined geomorphology, the CFC was initiated to form the canyon origin, which favoured the funnelling of sediments originating from the platform [14, 65]. Subsequently, or contemporaneously with upslope headward retreat and incision, turbidity currents promoted the formation of the canyon [40, 66].

As the slope gradient of the head segment was gentle, the turbidity currents had the lowest erosional ability [67, 68], so this part is obviously shallower than the middle segment and lower segment due to the limited incision (Figure 6). In the middle segment, the depth and width of the canyon apparently increase. Owing to the steepest average slope gradient and the existence of the “waterfall” at knickpoint 1, the erosive currents had higher flow velocities and erosional ability. At the start of the middle segment, with the gradual increase in the canyon depth, the trend of the canyon changed sharply from NNE to NW (Figures 4 and 6), which led to turbidity currents flowing towards the canyon walls and increasing lateral erosion; therefore, the curvature of the middle segment increased. In the lower segment of the canyon, the velocities and erosive capacities of turbidity currents would be the highest for the energy accumulation in the upper two segments. Therefore, the lower segment is the deepest with the highest sinuosity, although the slope gradient is the slowest (Figure 6).

Faults always play an important role in the formation and evolution of a canyon [17, 69]. Due to the plate collision of the eastern edge of the basin [37, 41, 42], reverse faults are developed in the study area (Figures 5(a)–5(d)). The ESP map shown at 50 m below the canyon bottom in plan view and vertical seismic profiles across the CFC both show that the canyon is bounded by two continuous reverse faults (Figure 7(b)). For regional compression, fractures and small faults are rich in the anticline between the two reverse faults, which reduces the strength of the stratum and makes it more vulnerable to weathering and denudation. Thus, faults are a favourable factor for canyon formation. For the same reason, the width of the canyon is closely related to faulting. According to the seismic profiles, the widest part of the middle segment has very developed underlying faults where the strata were more easily eroded, so the middle segment is the widest in the CFC (Figure 6). In addition, it is noteworthy that the width and depth of the CFC decrease abruptly at the junction points between segments (Figure 6). This is attributed to the fewer faults at these two knickpoints, which are shown in both the coherence slice and seismic profile (Figures 5(e), 7, and 12). The seismic facies of knickpoints are the same as those of the underlying early Visean strata (Figure 5(e)), which have moderate amplitudes with high-continuity parallel reflections. The formation was difficult to erode due to undeveloped fractures, thus forming these two knickpoints, which are similar to two small crests dividing the CFC into three segments.

5.2. Canyon Filling Processes

During the deposition of the highstand system tract in Ss1, the carbonate platform grew vertically, resulting in low-amplitude and high-continuity parallel reflections (seismic facies 2) (Figure 5). When the sea level rose to a highstand, the productivity of the carbonate factory greatly increased with much carbonate deposition, especially in the carbonate platform interior, which was mainly in the leeward direction and favoured carbonate sedimentation [65, 70]. The slope instability increased for the prior vertical accretion, which promoted the delivery of carbonate debris downslope. Combined with sea level lowering, the carbonate factory moved closer to the slope break of the platform and destabilized sediments by increased pore-water pressure [65, 71]. During this stage, the sediments of the carbonate platform were transported mainly by channels or small gullies on both sides of the platform (Figures 11(a) and 12(a)). The original confined negative topography accumulated sediments from the platform and served as a conduit to promote the formation and development of the CFC [14, 65]. However, with the gradual increase in platform productivity, increasingly more sediments were deposited in the CFC and almost filled it (Figure 5).

The lower sea level of the lowstand system tract of Ss2 caused low productivity of the carbonate factory. When the relative sea level rose to a highstand during the transgressive and highstand system tracts, the productivity of the carbonate factory greatly increased. The carbonate platform accelerated to expand laterally through progradation into the former platform interior with downlap on the canyon fill deposits (Figures 5, 11(b), and 12(b)). Platform progradation and merging of separate platforms always occur by this kind of lateral accretion. Similar occurrences have been documented in the middle Miocene prograding carbonate bank margins of the Maldives [72] and the Miocene-Pliocene Segitiga platform in Indonesia [55].

5.3. Evolutionary Stages of the CFC

Based on the above analysis, a schematic illustration of the depositional processes of the CFC in the Carboniferous KT-II at the eastern edge of the Precaspian Basin was established (Figure 14).

(a)

(b)

(c)

5.3.1. Incising Stage

Due to the collision of the Kazakh and European plates, the confined elongated negative palaeogeomorphology formed, and reverse faults developed in the study area in the late Visean (Figures 5 and 13). The reverse faults weakened the strength of the strata in the confined palaeogeomorphology. Combined with the low sea level of the LST of Ss1, the canyon is formed by incision of the original negative relief through headward retrogressive mass failures during the incising stage (Figure 14(a)). The uplift provided proper environments for shallow-water carbonate platform production, so during this stage, the sediments from the platform promoted the formation and development of the CFC.

5.3.2. Early Filling Stage

During this stage, for the rising sea level of the TST and HST in Ss1, the productivity of the carbonate factory greatly increased, especially in the leeward direction. Channels and gullies perpendicular to the canyon walls delivered platform sediments into the CFC (Figures 11(a) and 12(a)). First, the CFC was deepened, and as more sediments were supplied, the CFC was nearly filled at the end of this stage (Figure 14(b)).

5.3.3. Late Filling Stage

As the CFC was basically filled in the former stage, the overall terrain was relatively flat in the platform interior. Because the sea level almost kept rising during the late filling stage of Ss2, the carbonate platform expanded into the former platform interior through progradation clinoforms (Figures 11(b) and 12(b)). After this stage, the CFC was completely filled, and the negative relief was gone (Figure 14(c)).

Overall, the palaeogeomorphology and faults caused by tectonic movement controlled the formation and geomorphic characteristics of the CFC, while variations in the amount and sediment supply influenced by sea level change controlled the infilling process of the CFC.

6. Conclusions

The CFC at the eastern edge of the Precaspian Basin showed a N-S orientation and S-shaped geometry and was parallel to the open carbonate platform of KT-II. The whole CFC was divided into three segments by two knickpoints from south to north for changes in the incision depth and width. For the palaeogeomorphology and faults induced by regional compressional movement, the CFC formed along the thalweg of a confined palaeotopographic feature during early Carboniferous times.

Six kinds of seismic facies were identified in the canyon. The sedimentary interpretations of CFC-related sediments were carried out by combining logging and core data. This, together with planar attribute analysis, such as RMS, leads to distinguishing three stages of the evolution of the canyon: the incising stage, the early filling stage, and the late filling stage. During the incising stage, the confined negative relief and reverse faults caused by tectonic activity, combined with the low sea level, all contributed to the initiation of the CFC and development through headward retrogressive mass failures. During the subsequent early filling stage, much carbonate sediment was produced by the carbonate factory and transported into the CFC by channels and gullies perpendicular to the platform. The CFC was nearly filled by the end of this stage. Finally, during the rising sea level and geomorphic change, the canyon fillings were dominated by platform progradation in the late filling stage. In summary, tectonics controlled the formation of the CFC, while sedimentary processes contributed to its excavation and infilling.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the supplementary information file(s).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge CNODC for providing and permitting the publication of the geological data. The work was supported by the Science and Technology Project of China National Petroleum Corporation (grant number 2021DJ3402) and Science and Technology Project of China National Logging Corporation (grant numbers CNLC2022-10D02, CNLC2022-10D03, and CPL2021-D04).

Supplementary Materials

We provide Figure 6 and its data in PDF format. (Supplementary Materials)

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