Future of the Renal Biopsy: Time to Change the Conventional Modality Using Nanotechnology

Table 3

Different contrast agents.

Medical imaging types	Modality	FDA approved contrast agents	Particle size	Comment(s)
Structural	MRI	AMI-25 (Feridex™) [77]	∼58 nm [78]	T2-agent
		Schering (Resovist®) [79]	~21–46 nm [80]
		OMP50 [81]	~300 nm [82]
		Feridex (FDA cleared) [71]	~300 nm [82]
		Ferumoxytol [83]	~300 nm [82]	Can be used in patients with CKD stages I–V or ESD
		AMI-121 (Ferumoxsil™) [81]	~300 nm [84]
		Gadolinium contrast agents [85]
		Gadodiamide (Omniscan™) [86]		Linear nonionic, high nephrogenic systemic sclerosis (NSF) risk
		Gadobenate (Multihance®) [86]		Linear ionic
		Gadopentetate (Magnavist®) [86]		Linear ionic, high NSF risk
		Gadoteridol (ProHance®) [86]		Macrocyclic ionic
		Gadofosveset (Ablavar®) [86]		Linear ionic
		Gadoversetamide (OptiMark™) [86]		Linear nonionic
		Gadobutrol (Gadovist®) [86]		Macrocyclic ionic
		Gadoterate (Dotarem®) [87]		Macrocyclic ionic
		Gadoxetate (Primovist®) [87]		Linear ionic
		Iron oxide MNPs [73]
		Super paramagnetic iron oxides (SPIO) [88]
		Omniscan (FDA cleared) [71]
		3He (under investigation) [89]
		Manganese dipyridoxaldiphosphate (Mn-DPDP) [90]
		MnCl2 [91]
Structural	CT	Iopromide (Ultravist®) [92]	~200 nm [93]
		Iopamidol (Isovue 370) [94]		Nonionic monomers
		Iohexol (Omnipaque 350) [95]		Nonionic monomers
		Gold nanoparticles
Structural	US	Albunex [36]	1–8 μm [39]
		Optison® [96]
		Lumason® [96]
		Definity [97]
		Imagent® (formerly Imavist™) [98]
Structural	Multiphoton microscopy (MPM)	Nanotubes [99]
Structural	OCT	To date, there are no FDA-approved contrast agents for imaging with OCT.
Structural	Photo acoustic imaging [100]	Clofazimine (CFZ)
Functional	PET	Compound of ^18F and natural nanoparticles (lipoproteins, viruses and ferritin) [101]
	fMRI	Gd-DTPA
Spectral	Fluoresce	Indocyanine green
		Fluorescein
		Agent methylene blue
		Demeclocycline
Spectral	Near infrared absorption spectroscopy	Indo Cyanine Green (ICG)
Spectral	Hyperspectral imaging