Application of Berberine on Treating Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Figure 2

Main mechanisms of BBR on glucose metabolism. Note: AMPK: adenosine monophosphate- (AMP-) activated protein kinase; HNF-4: hepatic nuclear factor 4 alpha; PPARs: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-6: interleukin-6; INOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; CRP: C-reaction protein; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; IR: insulin resistance; MDA: malondialdehyde; AR: aldose reductase; SOD: superoxide dismutase; GSH-PX: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: glutathione; GLP-1: glucagon-like protein-1; PKC: protein kinase C; InsR: insulin receptor; GLU1: glucose transporter type 1; RNP4: retinol binding protein 4; GLUT4: glucose transporter type 4.