Gender in Endocrine Diseases: Role of Sex Gonadal Hormones

Table 1

Endocrine roles of estrogens in the human body.

Thyroid	Increase TBG; decrease free fraction of thyroxine [129]; downregulation of the thyroid somatostatin receptor (SSTR) [11, 129]
Glucose metabolism	Increase insulin sensitivity; protect pancreatic β-cells [130]
Bone	Inhibit generation and activity of osteoclasts; upregulation of osteoprotegerin; decrease T cell activation; decrease IFN-γ release by T cells; increase intestinal calcium absorption [8]
Muscle	Increase levels of proanabolic factors; reduce muscle inflammation; decrease muscle damage; increase postexercise muscle satellite cell activation and proliferation; increase intrinsic contractile muscle function [109, 110]
GH/IGF-1 axis	Decrease hepatic IGF-1 production; downregulation of the thyroid somatostatin receptor (SSTR) [11]
Adipose tissue	Increase gynoid fat deposition [88]; decrease postprandial fatty acid oxidation [95, 96]; increase fat oxidation during submaximal exercise [16, 98]; decrease energy intake; increase energy expenditure; reduce tissue inflammation [130]