Epigenetic Modifications due to Environment, Ageing, Nutrition, and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Their Effects on the Endocrine System

Table 1

EDCs and their effects as discussed in Section 7.

EDC	Animal model	Sex	Dose	Effect	Generation	Reference
DES	Mouse	Female	10 μg/kg/maternal bw	Increased PPL of oviduct	F2	[67]
Vinclozolin	Rat	Male	100 mg/kg/day	No effect on methylation	N/A	[68]
Procymidone	Rat	Male	100 mg/kg/day	No effect on methylation	N/A
Flutamide	Rat	Male	10 mg/kg/day	No effect on methylation	N/A
BPA	Mice	Female	5mg/kg	Increased Meg3	F3	[65]
	Mice	Female	0.5, 20, 50 μg/kg/day	Dysregulated gene expression of ovarian apoptotic factors, oxidative stress factors, autophagy factors	N/A	[69]
	Zebrafish	Female	20 μg/L	Variations in transcript abundance of genes Iesr, star, lhcgr, fshr, amh	Up to F3	[70]
	Rats	Male	1.2 μg and 2.4 μg	Reduced sperm count and motility, decreased ERβ expression	Up to F3	[71]
				Increased ERα expression	F1
			1.2 μg	Decreased Ar expression	Up to F3
			2.4 μg	Decreased Ar expression	Only F3
DEHP	Mice	Female	20 μg/kg/d	Ovarian weight decrease	F1	[72]
			500 and 750 mg/kg/d	Uterine weight increase	F1
			200 μg/kg/d	Decreased body weight	F3
			20 and 200 μg/kg/d, 500 mg/kg/d	Decreased ovarian weight	F3
			20 and 200 μg/kg/d and 500 and 750 mg/kg/d	Decreased liver weight	F3
			750 mg/kg/d	Increased time in proestrus and metestrus/diestrus	F1
			20 and 200 μg/kg/d	Decreased time in proestrus	F3
			200 μg/kg/d	Increased time in estrus and metestrus/diestrus	F3
			500 mg/kg/d and 750 mg/kg/d	Increased time in metestrus/diestrus	F3
			500 mg/kg/d	Decreased time in proestrus and estrus	F3
			750 mg/kg/d	Decreased number of primordial follicles	F1
			20 μg/kg/d	Decreased number of preantral follicles	F1
			200 μg/kg/d 500 mg/kg/d	Increased number of primordial follicles	F2
			200 μg/kg/d	Increased number of primary follicles	F2
			500 mg/kg/d	Increased levels of estradiol and decreased levels of testosterone	F1
			750 mg/kg/d	Increased levels of estradiol	F1
			20 μg/kg/d	Decreased testosterone and increased levels of estradiol	F2
			200 μg/kg/d	Decreased progesterone	F2
			500 mg/kg/d	Decreased testosterone	F2
		Male	150 mg/kg	Lighter seminal vesicles	N/A	[73]
			200 mg/kg	Behavioral differences	N/A
TCDD	Rats	Female	N/A	Reduced kidney weight	F3	[74]
				Increased primordial follicle loss and polycystic ovarian disease	F1 & F3
		Male	N/A	Reduced kidney weight and increase in serum testosterone concentrations	F3