Conceptual and Empirical Themes regarding the Design of Technology Transfer Programs: A Review of Wood Utilization Research in the United States

Table 2

Conceptual frameworks for research and scientific investigations, by key attributes and implications for research utilization and technology transfer.

Research framework	Key attributes	Implications for research utilization
(A) Diffusion of scientific knowledge	(i) Researchers are the source of ideas for research and for conducting research.	(i) Interaction between researchers and users of research products is virtually nonexistent.
	(ii) Users of research products are poorly defined (if at all).	(ii) Transfer of knowledge is not assured and certainly not automatic.
	(iii) Research products advance aimlessly from researchers to users (nonlinear).	(iii) Responsibility for transfer of knowledge is not assigned to an individual or organization.
		(iv) Raw and unformatted knowledge is not always easily used.
(B) Imprecise demand for knowledge	(i) Users of research are sources of ideas for research, although most times in a very limited and indirect manner.	(i) Research focus is often ill-defined and unclear, thus making research products of limited use.
	(ii) Researchers and users have markedly different cultures which restrict communication.	(ii) Cultural differences limit interaction between researchers and users of research products.
	(iii) Research products advance sporadically and inconsistently from researchers to potential users.	(iii) Limited interaction between researchers and users limits utilization of research products.
(C) Facilitated interaction for knowledge	(i) Interface between researchers and users of research products is limited, although facilitated by third parties.	(i) Researchers and users of research products are neither involved in the selection of researchable problems nor the selection of transferable information.
	(ii) Problems are identified, defined and made known to researchers by third parties.	(ii) Third party interlocutors may be limited in ability to bridge the user-researcher interface.
	(iii) Useful products of research are identified, configured, and presented in useful forms to users by third parties.
(D) Direct user-producer interaction for knowledge	(i) Interaction between researchers and users of research products exists at all stages of knowledge production.	(i) Instrumental role of research is focused on at expense of unfettered freedom to research unexplored subjects.
	(ii) Researchers actively seek user advice on problem definition, research approach, and ways of facilitating the use of research products.	(ii) Access to the products of research is limited to few users of the products of research.
		(iii) Very technical and very narrow products of research limit their broader application.
		(iv) User organizational interests (limited time for research, change in problem definition, proprietary considerations) can compromise the integrity of research processes and products.

Source: adapted from [26].