Exploring Long Noncoding RNAs in Glioblastoma: Regulatory Mechanisms and Clinical Potentials

Table 1

A list of deregulated lncRNAs in glioma with diagnostic and prognostic perspectives.

Category	LncRNA	Biological function/phenotypes	Molecular mechanisms/targets	Survival correlation	Others	References
Overrepresented in gliomas	HOTAIR	Maintains proliferation and tumorigenic potential of GBM cells	Associating with PRC2; regulating Wnt/β-catenin signaling; ceRNAs (competing endogenous RNAs) for miR-326 and miR-148b-3p	Yes	Preferentially expressed in classical and mesenchymal glioma	[64–67]
	CRNDE	Promotes glioma cell growth and migration in vitro and tumorigenesis in a xenograft mouse mode	ceRNAs for miR-136-5p, miR-186, and miR-384	Yes		[55, 71–73]
	NEAT1	Promotes glioma pathogenesis	ceRNAs for miR-449b-5p to upregulate c-Met; associating with EZH2	Yes		[78–80]
	XIST	Confers glioma cells’ oncogenic and chemoresistant behaviors; XIST knockdown increased permeability of the brain-tumor barrier (BTB) and inhibited glioma angiogenesis	ceRNAs for miR-152, miR-429, miR-29c, and miR-137	/		[14, 83–86]
	H19	Enhances invasion, angiogenesis, stemness and tumorigenicity of GBM cells; depletion of H19 inhibited glioma-provoked proliferation, migration, and tube formation of glioma endothelial cells (GECs)	ceRNA (miR-29a); negatively regulating RB1 expression	Yes		[12, 89, 92, 93]
	TUG1	Maintains stemness and tumorigenic properties of GBM stem-like cells (GSCs); modulates blood-tumor barrier; and enhances glioma-induced angiogenesis	Associating with PRC2 and YY1; ceRNAs for miR-26a, miR-144, miR-299, and miR-145	/	Intravenous administration of ASOs against TUG1 induces GSC differentiation and suppresses tumor growth intracranially	[46, 125–127]
	SOX2OT	Maintains proliferation, migration, invasion, and tumorigenesis of GSCs	ceRNAs for miR-122 and miR-194-5p	/		[99]
	UCA1	Promote glioma cell proliferation, invasion, and migration; modulates glioblastoma-associated stromal cell-mediated glycolysis and invasion of glioma cells	ceRNAs for miR-182 and miR-122	Yes		[165–168]
Downregulated in gliomas	MEG3	Impairs in vitro glioma cell proliferation	MDM2-p53; ceRNAs for miR-19a and miR-93	/		[105–109]
	MALAT1	Tumor-suppressive function in glioma	Inactivating the ERK/MAPK signaling; enhancing the expression of tumor-suppressor FBXW7	Yes	MALAT1 could be either a positive or a negative regulator in glioma tumorigenesis depending on cellular contexts	[115–119]
	ROR	Tumor-suppressive function in glioma	ROR’s expression is negatively correlated with the level of KLF4, a stem cell gene	/		[169]
	TUSC7	Suppresses cellular proliferation and invasion of glioma cells, accelerates cellular apoptosis, and inhibits TMZ resistance	ceRNAs for miR-23b and miR-10a	Yes		[170–172]
	CASC2	CACS2 overexpression sensitizes glioma cells to TMZ	ceRNAs for miR-181a and miR-193-5p to upregulate PTEN and mTOR expression	Yes		[134–136]