Role of the Kidneys in Resistant Hypertension

Table 1

Renal mechanisms of drug-resistant hypertension.

(1) Blunted pressure natriuresis
(a) Chronic kidney disease
(b) Renal artery stenosis
(2) Renal nerve activation
(3) Renal nitric oxide deficiency
(4) Medications acting adversely on the kidney
(a) Non steroid anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
(b) Cox-2 inhibitors
(c) Corticosteroids
(d) Cyclosporine
(e) Erythropoietin
(f) Licorice
(5) Extra renal factors causing salt retention
(a) Hyperaldosteronism
(b) Vasodilator medications
(c) Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA)
(d) Endothelin type A receptor antagonists.
(6) Inappropriately high salt intake
(7) Ineffective diuretic usage