Comorbidity of Anxiety and Hypertension: Common Risk Factors and Potential Mechanisms

Table 1

The common risk factors for comorbid hypertension and anxiety.

Risk factors	The effects on hypertension	The effects on anxiety	Reference
Age	Endothelial dysfunction	Reduced 5-HT specific receptors	[19–22]
Sex	Drop in estrogen	Drop in estrogen	[23–25]
Smoking	Increased sympathetic activity	Nicotine-based withdrawal symptoms, perceived and objective health impairment	[26–29]
	Oxidative stress
Alcohol abuse	Increased sympathetic activity	Abnormal brain function	[30–32]
	Activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Obesity	Abnormal kidney function;	Senescent cells	[33, 34]
	Increase in tubular sodium reabsorption
Lead	Increased sympathetic activity	Neuroinflammation	[35, 36]
Traffic noise	Intensive oxidative stress	Excessive stress hormone release	[37, 38]