Carbohydrate Elimination or Adaptation Diet for Symptoms of Intestinal Discomfort in IBD: Rationales for “Gibsons’ Conundrum”

Table 2

Some immunoregulatory functions of butyrate.

(i) Increases choline acetyltransferase immunoreactive (ChAT-IR) enteric neurons in vivo and in vitro; (ii) Increases cholinergic-mediated colonic motility and contractile response ex vivo	[72]
(i) Modulates oxidative stress in healthy colonic mucosa; (ii) Promotes glutathione (GSH) and lower uric acid concentrations compared	[73]
(i) Promotes the differential expression of 500 genes in human colonic mucosa; (ii) Increases gene expression of transcriptional regulation pathways: fatty acid oxidation, electron transport chain, and oxidative stress; (iii) Increases gene expression related to epithelial integrity and apoptosis	[74]
(i) Influences colonic function, mainly by histone deacetylase inhibition	[75, 76]
(i) Reduces inflammatory responses in vitro, mainly by inhibition of NF-κB activation	[77]
(i) Mediates NOD2-dependent mucosal immune responses against PGN	[78]
(i) Modulates an intracellular JAK/STAT1 signaling cascade which inhibits NO production	[79]
(i) Enhances upregulation/detection of PRRs on intestinal epithelial cells	[80–83]
(i) Anticarcinogenic/angiogenic by modulating the activity of several key regulators involved in apoptosis and cell differentiation	[84–86]
(i) Enhances colonic defense barrier	[87–89]