Design and Implementation of Hybrid PV/Battery-Based Improved Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter-Fed Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Aljafari, Belqasem; Devarajan, Gunapriya; Arumugam, Selvi; Vairavasundaram, Indragandhi

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2934167

International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

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Abstract Introduction Results and Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2022 | Article ID 2934167 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2934167

Design and Implementation of Hybrid PV/Battery-Based Improved Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter-Fed Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Belqasem Aljafari,¹Gunapriya Devarajan,²Selvi Arumugam,³and Indragandhi Vairavasundaram⁴

Academic Editor: Faroque Azam

Received08 May 2022

Accepted23 Jul 2022

Published28 Aug 2022

Abstract

In order to enhance the power transformation stage’s power transfer capabilities and efficiency, in this article, improved three-port two step-up single-ended primary-inductor converters (SEPIC) converter fed (Photovoltaic )PV- Hybrid Electric Vehicle was proposed. In comparison to the standard single-stage SEPIC, the proposed converter accepts a wider range of input voltages. The proposed three-port converter uses a multiple-winding high-frequency transformer (HFT) to integrate the dual sources and provide greater voltage gain with lesser elements. Furthermore, by predicting the drive torque need, the power management algorithm (PMA) included with the proposed PV-hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) minimizes the drive motor’s power consumption. An experimental model with a power output of 6 kW and a voltage range of 12 to 600 volts has been created and tested. The designed model has 94.11% efficiency.

1. Introduction

In recent years, there has been an enormous growth in efforts to improve, establish, and manage renewable energy sources (RESs). These can be affected by a combination of reasons. Conventional energy sources (fossil fuels) are known to pollute and degrade the environment as well as contribute to global warming and the greenhouse effect. The utilization of RES for electricity generation has become unavoidable due to the need to reduce carbon emissions. In the transportation industry, conventional automobiles also contribute to environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. When these vehicles burn gasoline, coal, or natural gas, they emit hazardous combustion components such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon dioxide (CO2). According to environmental data providers in the United States [1], the transport industry accounts for about a quarter of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as presented in Figure 1. Internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles lose energy along with heat loss and friction on the moving segment, as seen in [2]. With the ICE being phased out, electric vehicles (EVs) become the greatest possibility for lowering outflow [3]. Battery EVs require a big battery with a restricted span for propulsion [4]. The HEV has emerged as a viable option for decreasing transportation-related GHG emissions, with the use of a variety of energy sources targeted to reduce vehicle running costs and enhance efficiency. HEVs are expected to be more fuel-efficient than ICE vehicles and to maintain their state of charge (SOC) during the journey [5]. Completely green charging systems (CGCSs) reduce CO2 emissions by charging EVs using renewable energy, hence encouraging the adoption of renewable energy sources in the energy sector. EVs are charged from the grid, yet in practice, EVs do not consume coal but rather renewable energy.

1.1. Motivation

The main problems with HEVs are regenerative braking and the fuel tank. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with externally charged battery packs were developed to overcome this problem [6]. Among other renewable energy systems, PV frameworks have seen the most progress and construction in recent years. The majority of the PV framework development that is released as an off-grid market is intended for the grid-connected PV industry. A grid-connected PV infrastructure is described in [7]. A DC converter is necessary for the front-large step-up to optimize and control PV voltage at the DC bus voltage (400 or 800 V). The output voltage of a PV model is often lower (20–50 V). The common-mode current in a grounded PV system is ignored by a mechanism. It includes features that are of interest, such as high voltage, low recovery of leakage energy, and low switch stress; moreover, the converter has more source ripple current, and it contributes to the PV segment’s maximum power point tracking (MPPT). In [8] a high-voltage gain with input current ripple cancellation techniques has been discussed. According to the regular driving cycle, a large number of PV-powered EVs have been developed. PV power generating systems, as compared to other types of power generation, provide more benefits by supplying clean and abundant energy [9, 10].

The torque from the engine and motor is distributed to the driving shaft using a PMA based on vehicle dynamics [11]. It aids in improving EV energy efficiency. To increase the efficiency of the DC/AC converter, Battiston et al. [12] presented an enhanced flatness control technique for a quasi-Z-source inverter-fed permanent magnet synchronous motor-operated EV. The flatness controller has a great dynamic performance and is stable. A review of the AC/DC-DC power converter for EV has been discussed [13]. The adoption of maximum step-up converters with higher efficiency and reliability for transforming infinite energies into the power grid will be substantially catalyzed by the expansion of RES [14]. Vehicle to grid (V2G) capability is provided by PHEVs, which solves the problem of restricted driving range [15]. A hybrid energy source system for EV is an integration of a battery and super capacitor that improves overall efficiency and battery lifespan [16–20].

The authors in [21, 22] described a three-port converter for high power applications that integrates the battery and PV. In particular, coupled inductors (CIs) with high turn ratios create leak inductance due to voltage spikes beyond the switches, as well as greater power losses, which diminish efficiency. This issue could be answered by healing energy from the leakage inductor. The use of a voltage clamp circuit in CI converters can result in an outstanding performance [23]. The three-port converter’s CI contributes to achieving high-voltage gain. It facilitates in lowering of voltage stress across the switch. By reprocessing the energy held in the leakage inductors, the active clamp circuit enhances the power conversion efficiency. In [24], a comparison of the two and three-level inverter-fed EVs was given. In addition, an innovative control strategy for balancing the three-level inverter’s DC link capacitors is described, which reduces the switching sequences as different from traditional pulse width modulation (PWM) strategies.

The voltage balancing method lowers total inverter switching losses and eliminates voltage distortion. The PV interfaced HEVs (PV-HEVs) are considered to be a step ahead in transport and are able to replace ICE-based conventional vehicles. To avoid the use of new balancing circuits, a new vitality control system must be developed to observe the vehicle-to-home (V2H) and home-to-vehicle (H2V) abilities. When the drive attaches the PV-HEV to the home, a controller based on the fuzzy logic controller (FLC), which combines the SOC, has been proposed to minimize the SOC. Faraji and Farzanehfard [25] presented a non-isolated large step-up three-port converter that is meant to provide two distinct power flow routes from each source. To enhance gain and remove the leaking inductance, the CI approach was utilized. The active clamp circuit used with the given architecture provides zero voltage switching (ZVS), which reduces the switching losses and stress [26]. Bharathidasan et al. [27] described a multi-input DC-DC converter using CI. Gules et al. [28] elaborated a brushless DC (BLDC) motor drive fed by a conventional low step-up SEPIC designed for EV applications. It uses a parallel LC resonant tank circuit to combine a soft-switching approach and a CI [29]. Due to its easy architecture and ease of accomplishment of soft switching, a bidirectional converter designed using a phase shift control technique is usually processed for HEV. Previous to the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) being ON, a steady offset current of the inductor is carried on to forward bias the anti-parallel diodes and achieve ZVS. In order to reduce ripple on the source and load postern, a novel multi-port ZVS converter was proposed in [30]. It may also connect three different voltage sources with the help of multiple switches. To decrease ripple and diminish the average current flowing continuously in the semiconductor devices, Saadatizadeh et al. [31] proposed a high-voltage conversion ratio interleaved boost converter with low voltage stresses on diodes and switches.

The interleaved topology, which incorporates diode-capacitor modules, helps to boost gain and diminish stress on the switch. A CI-based non-isolated DC-DC converter with strong boosting gain has been proposed in [32]. A coupled inductor-based multi-input DC-DC converter is presented in [33]. The use of a three-winding CI results in a large gain and aids in minimizing switching stress. The SEPIC-based DC-DC converter is also found to have more advantages than traditional DC-DC converters [34, 35]. Figure 2 shows a conventional single step-up SEPIC without the CI utilized to transmit energy from a PV. In the proposed topology, energy transfer ability and voltage gain are enhanced using a three-port two, step-up SEPIC converter by integrating PV array and battery. The enhanced SEPIC’s topology is derived from the SEPIC’s single-stage boosting design.

The fundamental single step-up SEPIC without a CI has a gain that is nearly double that of a classical step-up converter and a switching voltage that is half that of a traditional step-up converter. The improved SEPIC boosts the gain by using a three-winding CI as a flyback transformer, and the main benefits are validated. The converter technique is proposed in Section 2, design considerations are given in Section 3, control strategy is given in Section 4, power flow management algorithm is given in Section 5, results and discussion are given in Section 6, and Section 7 gives the conclusions.

2. Proposed Converter

. The architecture of the proposed three-port two-step-up SEPIC converter-driven PV interconnected to HEV is shown in Figure 3 The PV and battery provide the PV-HEV with its electricity. The HEV is more efficient than a traditional EV in this approach. The battery and ICE in a standard HEV add to the vehicle’s weight, lowering its efficiency. When compared to the ICE integrated model, the proposed structure is constructed exclusively with BLDC motor drive, resulting in lower system weight. The designed PV-HEV has the benefit of accepting a broad range of input voltage and stabilizing the VSI DC link voltage to improve the drive motor’s performance.

. The major concern of the improved three-port two-step-up SEPIC converters is to enhance the voltage gain. A three-winding linear transformer is added between the source and the VSI to modify the standard SEPIC. Add on one extra circuitry in a back-to-back connection; a standard SEPIC becomes a three-port SEPIC. Figure 4 shows the power circuit, which consist of a battery, PV, an improved three-port two boosting SEPIC connection with voltage doubler rectifier, three phases VSI, and a BLDC motor with driving lines. To make the theoretical analysis simple, the battery and PV are used as a source, with the semiconductors treated as independent elements. To demonstrate the theoretical analysis of the system, improved three-port two-step-up SEPIC converter-driven PV-HEV operating in six distinct modes are described in this section.

Mode 1. During subinterval [t₀-t₁], the battery and PV array will continue to charge L₁, L₂, and L₃, as seen in Figure 5(a). The voltage stored in the C₂ and C₃ is discharging to the HFT until t₁. The diodes D₁ and D₂ are reverse biased, with the higher diode voltage equal to the sum of the voltages across C₁ and C₂ or C₃ and C₄. Equations (1) and (2) show the voltage equations of L₁, L₂, and L₃. The VSI’s power switches S5, S6, and S1 are all on, providing the BLDC motor drive with a controlled AC voltage.where V_L1 is inductor 1 voltage, V_L2 is inductor 2 voltage, V_L3 is inductor 3 voltage, V_b is the battery voltage, and V_pv is the PV voltage.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Mode 2. In [t₁-t₂], the inductors L₁, L₂, and L₃ are entirely demagnetized by the SEPIC’s Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃. The PV array output voltage charges L₃ at the end of this subinterval. D₁ is forward biased, allowing L₁ to transfer its stored energy to C₂. Figures 5(b) and 6 show the analogous circuit for this subinterval as well as the relevant operating waveforms. In equations (3)–(5), the battery’s voltage equations, C₂ and C₃, are described.where V_C2 is capacitor 2 voltage, D_Q1, D_Q2, and D_Q3 are the duty ratios of Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃, and V_C4 is capacitor 4 voltage.

Mode 3. In [t₂-t₃], Q₁ is turned on, while Q₂ and Q₃ are turned off. Figures 5(c) and 6 show the analogous circuit for this subinterval as well as the important operating waveform. The energy transformer from the primary to secondary of the HFT exists until the mode ends or the switches are turned back on. The VSI’s power switches S₆, S₁, and S₂ are used to provide a managed AC voltage in time with the Hall effect sensor output. The power transfer to the capacitors C₂ and C₄ is completed, and the diodes D₁ and D₂ are turned off.

Mode 4. Figures 5(d) and 6 show the subinterval’s corresponding circuit and essential operating waveforms. The current of diodes D₁ and D₂ is continuously lowered when the converter power switches Q₁ and Q₂ are ON at t₃. After switching the converter power switch Q₃ to OFF, the potential polarity across L₃’s forward bias D₃ is reversed, and the battery is charged as of subinterval 2. Power is transferred from the DC link to the BLDC motor using power IGBTs S₁, S₂, and S₃.

Mode 5. The voltage control approach generates a pulse that activates Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃ during this subinterval. The power produced by the PV is stored by the input inductors L₁, L₂, and L₃ in a manner similar to mode 1. The primaries of the HFT receive C2 and C4 during this subinterval. D₁ and D₂ are backward biased diodes. S₂, S₃, and S₄ IGBTs are all on as shown in Figures 5(e) and 6.

Mode 6. The switching states and current flow channel of the sixth mode of operation are shown in Figures 5(f) and 6. This mode begins at time t₅ and ends at time t₆. To discharge the energy stored in the inductors L₁, L₂, and L₃, the IGBTs of the dual step-up SEPIC Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃ are turned off. PV and L₃ work together to charge the battery bank. D₁ conducts current from L₁ to C₂ during this subinterval. Meanwhile, D₂ discharged L₂ to zero.

The voltage across the power switches and diodes is lesser than the SEPIC’s output voltage. The presence of a high-frequency isolation transformer limits the diode’s di/dt. The HFT boosting ratio is chosen so that the SEPIC has a strong boosting gain over a wide variety of inputs. The proposed three-port SEPIC’s theoretical current and voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 6. Consider equation (6) to get the greater gain of the improved three-port SEPIC with HFT and voltage doubler rectifier. The modified SEPIC’s boosting factor is enhanced by adding the HFT turn ratio without affecting the inductor or switch ratings.

The three-winding HFT turn ratio can be stated as follows.where n is the turn ratio of HFT, V_dc is the DC link voltage, N_Ls is the no. of turns in secondary of HFT, N_Lp1 is the no. of turns in primary 1, and N_Lp2 is the no. of turns in primary 2 of HFT.

3. Design Considerations

3.1. Inductor Design

The voltage equations described in equations (1)–(6) and the current flowing through a specific aspect are being utilized to determine the inductor value and capacitor utilized in DC-DC converters. The inductor’s stored energy is calculated using the inductor and the current flowing through the component, as shown in

The storage capacity of the inductor is determined by the inductor (L) size and core. The magnetic field density, B, can be written as

The inductor’s field energy may be calculated using

The inductor’s stored energy is exactly proportional to the air gap volume in an air-cored inductor. Equation (11) can be utilized to determine the lower volume (V) of the air gap necessary for the inductor.

The magnetic conductance is used to compute the number of turns in the inductor, as shown inwhere L is the inductor, I is the current, B is the flux density, B_max is the maximum flux density, A_L is the magnetic conductance, is the relative permeability, is the absolute permeability, W is the energy stored in the inductor, and H is the flux intensity.

3.2. Design of HFT

The proposed system’s HFT operates at a frequency of 25 kHz. It may also increase the input voltage to four times its original value. The transformer’s size is determined by the operating frequency and the transformer’s kilovolt-ampere rating. The HFT decreases in size as the switching frequency increases. The HFT’s primary and secondary currents are as follows:

The primary and secondary voltages of HFT are expressed according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

For both primary and secondary HFT, the minimum number of turns necessary is stated aswhere N_pri represents turns in primary, N_sec represents turns in secondary, T is the total time period, A_min is the minimum area of the core, and ∆B is the change in flux density.

4. Control Strategy

To create the gating pulses for switching Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃ in the proposed work-employed HEV, dual voltage control loops are used. The VSI’s DC link voltage (Vdc) is controlled by gate pulses generated by the power switches Q₁ and Q₂. When a large change in the converter’s input voltage is obtained, it aids in regulating the HEV’s DC link voltage. As shown in Figure 7, the proposed system’s control method is comprised of two PI voltage control loops. The voltage control loop1 developed with the PI controller 1 regulates the duty ratio of Q1 and Q2 to improve the PV voltage and maintain the DC link voltage. To manage the PV output voltage, voltage control loop 2 developed with the PI controller 2 regulates the duty ratio of Q₂. The SEPIC boosting gain is determined by the HFT’s turn ratio. By subtracting Vdc∗ and Vdc, as shown in equation (16), the error signal e1 is obtained. As shown in equation (17), the error signal e2 is derived by subtracting Vb∗ and Vb.where V_dc is the actual DC link voltage and V_dc∗ is the reference DC link voltage.

Two independent PI controllers process the error signals e₁ and e₂ to generate the SEPIC converters needed to control signals. The duty cycle of the power switches Q₁, Q₂, and Q₃ is determined by the amount of the control signals Vc1∗ and Vc2∗.

5. Power Flow Management Algorithm

A power management algorithm (PMA) is required to control the power stream between the source and the load in the proposed PV-HEV, which consists of power-producing sources (PV, battery bank, and BLDC motor). The power stream connecting the output voltage and motor drive is controlled using the estimated load torque demand. The PMA included in the proposed PV-HEV improves the efficiency and operating time of the HEV. The battery and PV, which are combined with the converters, provide the necessary power to the motor in order for them to provide the torque required by the load. When surplus power generation in the PV is identified, the proposed work is set to step up operation to transmit power from the PV to the DC-link.

The proposed converter, when operated in boost mode, transmits the DC-power links to the battery. Drive motors must be deactivated when I_battery-max arrives. The drive’s power balancing is given in

The BLDC motor converts the kinetic energy in the driveline into electrical energy in regenerative braking mode. The AC voltage produced by the BLDC motors is rectified by power diodes coupled in shunt with the inverter’s IGBTs. The rectified DC voltage is transferred to the battery unit by the proposed converter when it is enabled in boost operation. Figure 8 shows the algorithm for controlling the power flow.

6. Results and Discussion

12-volt batteries were used to create the experimental model. The converter’s switching frequency was 25 kHz. The XC161 microcontroller was used to execute the proposed system’s control approach and sense the BLDC motor’s rotor position. The XC161 microcontroller is used to produce the appropriate firing pulse for the converter, and VSI is used to manage the BLDC motor speed. The microcontroller’s PWM approach creates the need for a pulse for the three phases of VSI in synchrony with the drive motor’s rotor position. The program was downloaded to the 16 bit XC161 microcontroller with the KEIL-ULINK kit. The signal conditioning board receives the measured voltage across the VSI’s output voltage and converts it to a form that can be measured. The experimental results were achieved using the proposed configuration in a real-time setting. Figures 9–15 show the results of the proposed converter-fed PV-HEV prototype model. The contrast is summed up in Table 1.

The proposed converter has a greater voltage conversion ratio than the traditional SEPICs in the literature, according to the statistical study. The theoretical and experimental findings of the proposed converter are compared in Figure 16. The drive system’s efficiency is 94.11%, and Figure 17 shows the voltage and current stress on the converter’s major switches. Furthermore, the proposed converter’s efficiency is unaffected by changes in PV array voltage or load torque. As a result, the suggested converter is ideal for HEV applications. A minimal voltage PV array/battery can be interfaced with a large voltage DC-link using the proposed PV-HEV modified SEPIC.

7. Conclusion

. This paper presents an improved three-port two-step-up SEPIC converter fed PV-HEV to enhance voltage gain. The isolation in the middle of the PV system and driving unit is provided by the SEPIC with HFT. Furthermore, it supplies two phases of increasing the PV voltage and assists in increasing the gain of the traditional SEPIC. The static gain of the power circuit with HFT and voltage doubler rectifier is double that of a traditional SEPIC. The proposed converter’s efficiency is calculated to be 94.1%. Experiments have presented that the proposed converter is effective in enhancing a higher range of input voltages. The main advantage of proposed converter circuit is that it has a greater gain for a given duty cycle. In future scope, this topology can also be applied in the various applications which require reduced losses, high power density, and low weight and volume. Since the system uses renewable energy source, it can be effectively used in a wide range of applications, including the uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system.

Data Availability

The SEPIC data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

Theauthors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the Research Groups Funding Program (NU/RG/SERC/11/6).

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Copyright © 2022 Belqasem Aljafari et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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