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| TCS | Description of the alternative TCS |
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| Manual | This system relies on cash payment for motorway usage which is conducted manually by tolling staff. Driver has to stop her vehicle at the toll station and pay to officer who is responsible for it. Officer determines the amount to be paid on the basis of the characteristics and classification of vehicles, and the distance traveled by the vehicle. Since paying takes some amount of time, queuing is usual for this tolling type [45]. |
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| ACM | It is a machine with a slot for inserting coins or paper money. Driver has to stop her vehicle and pay a certain amount of money on the basis of the classification of vehicles, and the distance traveled by the vehicle. This technology has better service time when compared to the manual TCS, consequently resulting in lower delays. |
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| Vignette | It is a sticker which, once bought, pays the toll for a specific time period. There are vignettes which pay the toll in the duration of several days, week, month or a year. The vignette must be applied to the car windshield. The so-called electronic vignettes are not in the form of stickers, but the number of the car’s registration plate is inserted into the system for the days the vignette is paid for. The control of the participants is performed with the help of the database, traditional stopping on the roadside and penalizing the violators. |
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| DSRC with barriers | It is a type of non-contact TCS where the users do not have contact with toll booths or cashiers. Users can choose bills to be sent once a month or choose a prepaid model. A vehicle does not have to stop at the toll plaza; it only needs to reduce its speed in order to establish the contact and recognition through the on-board unit (OBU) to pass. In the meantime, all data are recorded in the central toll system of the operator. |
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| DSRC MLFF | In this system, antennas are set on gantries, on particular locations (e.g., between two interchanges) along the highway with road pricing. Antennas detect traffic flow and record the use on the OBU, as well as in the central toll collection system of the operator for further processing and payment. The technology used in MLFF system is designed so that the vehicles can maintain their speed and change lanes (including emergency stop lanes) while passing below the collection portal. |
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| Barcode -based | This system is a subcategory of ETC. Within this system, the barcode is a sticker applied to the windshield of the vehicle which is read by a laser scanner while the vehicle passes through the toll gate [46]. |
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| RFID with barriers | This system contains the OBU or sticker installed on the front windshield of the vehicle. At toll gate, either prepaid or postpaid system is read by a RFID frequency reader, [16]. RFID reader is a device used to communicate with an RFID tag, via radio waves [47]. A vehicle does not have to stop at the toll gate; it only needs to reduce its speed in order to establish the contact and recognition so that system can let the vehicle pass. |
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| RFID ORT | This system contains the OBU installed on the front of the vehicle. At the toll gate, this system is read by a RFID frequency reader [16]. The technology used in RFID ORT system is designed so that the vehicles can maintain their speed and change lanes (including emergency stop lanes) while passing below the collection portal. |
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| GNSS/CN | It includes a global navigation satellite system incorporated with the cellular networks. This TCS functions using a global positioning system unit (GPS/Galileo/Glonass) installed on the OBU which stores the route coordinates of the vehicle and sends the transaction information to toll collection central system through global mobile communication system (GSM/3G/4G) [48–50]. |
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| ANPR | It uses a stationary camera for recording and identifying the registration plate numbers of vehicles passing through the toll gates. The detected registration plates are paired in the database and the toll is deducted (a particular amount of money is taken). If the recorded plate number is not read accurately or not found in the database, an enforcement violation alarm is generated to alert the authorities. In this manner, two issues are simultaneously solved – identifying the vehicles for toll collection and issuing/recording the violation enforcement alert [51, 52]. |
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| Infrared | This system is similar to DSRC with barriers TCS; the only difference is that it has an active infrared unit installed in the vehicle which contains all the information [53–55]. |
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| Tachograph -based | It records the mileage driven by the user through an OBU connected electronically to the vehicle’s odometer, measuring the vehicle’s mileage. A tachograph system which is in place in New Zealand requires manual, rather than electronic, data collection [56]. |
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| Smart card | It represents a memory card in which the details of a particular person and certain amount of money are stored. Smart cards must be recharged with some amount of money and whenever a person wants to pay the toll, she needs to insert her smart card and deduct an amount of money. The smart card based toll collection system functions on the basis of contact communication between the smart card and the reader [57]. |
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| Smartphones | It is not matured TCS and it is in stages of constant development. An example of mobile and Smartphone ETC integration is the m-Toll, Ptoll, GeoToll, and PayTollo projects. This TCS relies on the use of smartphone capabilities, such as WiFi, 4G, GSNN, and NFC connection to authenticate, validate and charge road users without the need for any additional hardware for the end user. |
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