A Comprehensive Review on the Integration of Electric Vehicles for Sustainable Development

Table 2

Policy on recycling and recycling technology for metal recovery from end-of-life batteries of EVs.

Country	Key content	Company	Recycling process	Reference
European Union	Create a system of collection and recycling for all types of batteries based on an extended producer responsibility system through the Battery Directive	GRS Batterien Batrec AG	Pyrometallurgy, mechanical separation, hydrometallurgy	[136–138]
Swiss		Eurodieuze; Recupel	Pyrolysis, hydrometallugy, hydrometallurgy, mechanical separation, leaching, and refining
France		SNAM	Crushing, pyrolysis, distillation, pyrometallurgy
Spain		Pilagst	Mechanical separation, chemical treatment
Belgium		Umicore	Hydrometallugy after pyrometallurgy
Germany	The German Batteries Act requires all producers and importers of batteries and accumulators to collect end-of-life batteries	Accurec	Pyrolysis, hydrometallurgy	[138, 139]
USA	Universal waste regulations are used to manage the large number of batteries. The recycling of EV batteries at the end of their useful lives is not required by federal law, though. Several states recently outlawed the disposal of used EV batteries in landfills	Onto; Retriev; TOXCO	Cryogenic crushing, hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, cryogenic crushing, hydrometallurgy	[138, 140]
Japan	Under the Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources, manufacturers encourage resource collection and recycling on a voluntary basis (recycling batteries is not covered by any specific laws)	DOWA; Sumitomo	Pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, hydrometallugy after pyrometallurgy	[141, 142]
China	Interim Measures for the Management of Recycling and Utilizing Power Batteries for New Energy Vehicles were published in China (including design, production, and recycling responsibilities)	N/A	N/A	[143, 144]
Korea	After receiving a subsidy, the consumer must return the EV’s dead battery. The recycling of EV battery end-of-life batteries is not, however, subject to any laws	SungEel; Hitech; Kobar	Hydrometallurgy	[145, 146]