Assessing the Industrial Effluent Effect on Irrigation Water Quality and Farm Soil near Kombolcha Town, Ethiopia

Awol, Mohammed Jemal; Adugna, Amare Tiruneh; M, Kamaraj

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5586213

Journal of Chemistry

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments Supplementary Materials References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Residues of Water Treatment Plants

View this Special Issue

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2021 | Article ID 5586213 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5586213

Assessing the Industrial Effluent Effect on Irrigation Water Quality and Farm Soil near Kombolcha Town, Ethiopia

Mohammed Jemal Awol,¹Amare Tiruneh Adugna,²and Kamaraj M³

Academic Editor: Marco Carnevale Miino

Received15 Jan 2021

Revised02 Mar 2021

Accepted08 Mar 2021

Published15 Mar 2021

Abstract

This study evaluated various industrial effluents’ effect on irrigation water quality and farm soil near Kombolcha town. Several industries such as brewery, steel iron, textile, and tannery have been installed near the Borkena River that crosses Kombolcha town. Representative samples of irrigation water and farm soil were collected from the upper and down part of Borkena river. The upper site was used as a control as it was not contaminated by industrial effluents. The analysis for selected parameters showed that the downstream irrigation water quality had mean concentrations of pH = 8.54, magnesium (Mg⁺²) = 5.27 mg/l, carbonate (CO₃⁻²) = 1.25 mg/l, bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) = 9.10 mg/l, copper (Cu) = 0.21 mg/l, chromium (Cr) = 0.31 mg/l, and cadmium (Cd) = 0.03 mg/l which were above the permissible limit of the Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO’s) irrigation water quality standard. The mean concentrations of electric conductivity (EC) = 0.96 ds/m, sodium (Na⁺) = 3.35 mg/l, chloride (Cl⁻) = 7.67 mg/l, and total dissolved solids (TDS) = 612.98 mg/l were slightly and moderately restricted for irrigation. Moreover, the concentration of heavy metals, calcium (Ca⁺²) = 16.61 mg/l, iron (Fe) = 4.25 mg/l, manganese (Mn) = 0.18 mg/l, and lead (Pb) = 0.47 mg/l, was below the permissible limit of the FAO and nonrestricted. However, the mean concentration of EC, HCO₃⁻, Cu, Cr, Cd, and TDS for downstream-irrigated farm soil samples was above the permissible limit of the FAO. The concentration of most selected parameters in downstream farm soil was also decreasing along with depth except pH, CO₃⁻², and HCO₃^-. Generally, there is a significant quality difference (at P ≤ 0.05) between the upstream and downstream irrigation water quality on the parameters of Mg⁺², Cl⁻, Pb, and Cu.

1. Introduction

Water is one of the most important natural resources essential for the survival of all living things including human beings. Irrigation is a vital use, but some dissolved or suspended substances found in water affect its suitability. The scarcity of surface and groundwater for irrigation is also an ever-increasing problem around the world. In many low-income countries, wastewater is discharged commonly into water bodies with little and no treatment as there are limited treatment facilities [1]. The use of wastewater for agriculture has become a common reality in three-fourth of the cities of Asia, Africa, and Latin America [2, 3]. In many parts of Ethiopia, there is a practice to use wastewater which is disposed to wells, ponds, streams, and treatment plants as a source of irrigation water [4, 5].

Due to the rapid population growth and the uncertainty over climate change, wastewater use in the agricultural sector may face many challenges. Long-term irrigation with poor-quality water damages the balance of nature, causing ecological deterioration on farmland [6]. The application of wastewater also significantly changes the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological properties [7]. Irrigation by effluents containing high salinity made soil secondary salinization easy and enhanced total alkalinity and sodium alkalinity sharply in the soil, causing soil hardening and soil permeability decrease [8]. The problem seems to exacerbate in the town, where farmland soil type is clay, compared to other types which state low-quality irrigation water is hazardous on clay soil [9, 10], while the same water could be used satisfactorily on the sand and/or permeable soils.

In Ethiopia, urbanization and industrialization are occurring rapidly throughout the year [11]. Due to the rapid increase in the urban population, urban agricultural activities are being recognized as an important source of food, nutrition, and income for the urban poor. However, irrigation is challenged with a lack of water, and the experience of using polluted rivers for irrigation is becoming a common practice near urban areas. In Kombolcha town of Ethiopia, the “Worka” and “Leyole” rivers, tributaries of the “Borkena” river, have been receiving untreated industrial effluents directly or indirectly, and local farmers are irrigating without any treatment. For instance, the electric conductivity (EC) for the steel processing effluent was found to be higher compared to the other industries (i.e., steel products industry = 4000µS/cm, textile industry = 800µS/cm, tannery industry = 2200µS/cm, and BGI brewery industry = 2100µS/cm) [12].

Moreover, results indicated that median concentrations of Cr in the tannery effluent and Zn in the steel processing effluents were as high as 26,600 and 155,750 µg/l, respectively, much exceeding both the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the Ethiopian emission guidelines. Cu concentrations were low in all effluents, whereas Pb concentrations were high in tannery effluents [12].

The quantification of the pollutants found both in irrigation water and farm soil is an important aspect. Additionally, more industries are being installed which will increase the amount of wastewater with high pollution load unless properly treated. There is no research done for the specified site in identifying the concentration of the pollutants both in irrigation water and farm soil. Hence, the main objective of this study is to assess the effect of industrial effluents on the quality of Borkena river irrigation water and farm soil for selected parameters.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Area Description

The study area is found near Kombolcha town located in the north-central part of Ethiopia placed immediately southeast of Dessie town in the Amhara Region. It is 377 km away from Addis Ababa (capital city) and is geographically located at 11^o06′N, 39^o45′E. River Borkena, which crosses the town, receives industrial effluents indirectly through its tributaries named “Worka” and “Leyole.” Most of the industries are found close together in the middle of the town near the tributaries of Borkena (Figure 1).

The Kombolcha basin has a semiarid climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,030 mm, and the mean annual monthly temperature ranges from 24°C in January to 28°C in August. Kombolcha has two wet seasons, with the early wet season from February to April and later in the summer from July to September. The rains in the early wet season have been very low in recent years because of recurrent droughts with high annual potential evapotranspiration, reaching up to 3,050 mm/year in 2018. The rainfall in the wet season of June to September has remained relatively heavy and extensive (with a monthly average of 710 mm) compared with the early wet season (having an average rainfall of 130 mm) [13].

The landform of the study area includes rolling and undulating hills, with high plateaus to the west, the graben in the center, and the southward sloping ground to the Borkena River. The elevation of the land ranges from 1,750 m above sea level in the alluvial plain up to greater than 2,000 m above sea level in the uplands. Large parts of the built-up areas of the Kombolcha city have slope from 2.6% to 10%, and the slope of the hilly area increased to greater than 20%.

The local soils comprise alluvial/lacustrine deposits covering a large part of the town, with fluvisols at the banks of the tributaries of Borkena, colluvial screed deposits found mostly at the foot of hilly areas of the town and where Cambisols are developed, and Vertisol on the top of the alluvial or colluvial deposits, and covering most parts of the catchment areas [12].

2.2. Water and Soil Sampling Method

Samples of irrigation water and farmland soils were collected within one irrigation period, in three months, of the study area. Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation standard [14] and calibrated instruments were used during sample collection. Two sampling points, one in the upstream and the other in the downstream, were selected, i.e., upstream (A^∗) Guragoye and downstream (B^∗) Workiya, as shown in Supplementary Table S1. Composite water samples were taken from the two sampling locations, i.e., from the upstream and downstream of the Borkena River, between April and June. The intention was to characterize during the wet period (June) and the dry period (May). Representative soil samples were collected randomly using shovel slices at 20 different spots within the demarcated farmlands. One surface composite sample was collected in each irrigation phase, and a total of 3 composite surface samples were collected from the downstream-irrigated farmland. One composite surface soil sample from 20 different spots was collected for the upstream-irrigated farmland as the control. The samples were collected in a plastic bucket, and after thoroughly mixed, 0.5 kg of composite soil samples was used. Subsurface soil samples were collected from a 5 m × 5 m area by digging a V-shaped cut. Three pits were dug downstream of the farmland randomly, which is representative of the farmland soil sample. Nine soil samples were taken from the downstream-irrigated farmland in one irrigation phase within different depths (from 0 to 30 cm, 30 to 60 cm, and 60 to 90 cm). Totally, 27 subsurface soil samples were taken in three irrigation phases (one crop life) from the three pits’ excavated area at the downstream irrigation farmland. Three subsurface soil samples were taken from the upstream-irrigated farmland as a control in the 2^nd irrigation phase. Finally, samples of 500 gm soil were collected at 30 cm intervals along with the depth. The summary of water and soil samples collected in the study area is presented in Supplementary Table S2.

2.3. Physicochemical Analysis of Water and Soil Samples

pH, electric conductivity (EC), calcium (Ca⁺²), magnesium (Mg⁺²), sodium (Na⁺), chloride (Cl⁻), alkalinity, and heavy metals were analyzed by following the standard procedures as outlined by USSL staff [15]. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and sodium absorption ratio (SAR) were calculated by formulas suggested in the FAO [14]. The physicochemical characteristics of the collected water samples were analyzed using the standard method [16]. The methods of physicochemical analysis of water and soil samples are summarized in Table 1.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

SPSS statistical software version 18 was used to determine the descriptive statistics to obtain the means, standard deviations, and coefficient of variances. The mean comparison was done using a t-test to find out whether there was any significant difference, at a 95% confidence interval, between the calculated means.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Chemical Characteristics of Sampled Water

Physicochemical characteristics of downstream Borkena water quality in different irrigation phases and during the dry and wet season are reported in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Most of the parameter results were above the permissible limit of the FAO [14] standard (Table 4) except Ca⁺, Fe, Mn, Pb, and SAR during April at different irrigation levels as there was no rainfall, but water sampled from the downstream of Borkena was below the permissible limit of irrigation water quality, in the wet (June) period, except for the concentration of CO₃⁻² and HCO₃^-. The EC of downstream Borkena irrigation water had 0.77, 0.67, and 0.68 dS/m and 1.25, 1.05, and 1.15 dS/m during wet and dry periods at different irrigation phases. High EC value is predominant with Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations [17]. The highest EC (1.15 dS/m) value was recorded during the dry period, and the lowest was 0.48 ds/m at the upstream which is below the permissible limit of the FAO. In general, downstream Borkena irrigation water exceeds the permissible limit of the FAO standard (Table 4).

As shown in Table 3, the mean values of CO₃⁻² and HCO₃^- for downstream irrigation water were 1.75 mg/l and 10.22 mg/l during the dry period and 0.95 mg/l and 8.15 mg/l for the wet period. The results were above the permissible limit of the FAO’s irrigation standard. High alkalinity concentration in irrigation water causes Ca⁺² and Mg⁺² ions to form insoluble minerals, leaving sodium as the dominant ion in the solution [18]. Mean pH at downstream Borkena irrigation water was 8.72 and 8.42 for dry and wet periods, respectively. The value of pH during the dry period was higher than the wet period (8.65–8.75), which is above the FAO irrigation water quality standard (6.5–8.4). High pH values are often caused by high CO₃⁻² and HCO₃^- concentrations known as alkalinity [19, 20]. pH values of 4 or less and 12 or high cause death to most fish species [21, 22]. The observed values reflected that downstream Borkena irrigation water is unsuitable for irrigation purposes.

The concentrations of heavy metals for the selected site are reported in Table 3. Results showed that higher concentration was recorded during the dry period except for Mn, and Cr showed high seasonal variation. The higher concentration of Fe, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Cd during the dry period might be due to no dilution as there is no rainfall. Similarly, Islam et al. [23] reported that Cd, As, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Ni are identified as the priority control metals. Therefore, this study provides quantitative evidence demonstrating the critical need for strengthened wastewater discharge regulations.

3.2. Characteristic of Water Quality Parameters in the Three Irrigation Phases

The result in Table 2 shows the physicochemical characteristics of downstream Borkena irrigation water. The samples taken in the 2^nd irrigation phase had higher concentrations and were above the permissible limits of the FAO’s standard. This is due to the lack of rainfall and industrial effluents released directly to the Borkena River without being diluted with rainwater. In the 3^rd irrigation phase, water sampled from downstream Borkena was below the permissible limit of irrigation water quality except for the concentration of CO₃⁻² and HCO₃^-. Minimum concentration was recorded in this period due to the dilution with rainwater, and the medium value was recorded in the 1^st irrigation phase (Table 2).

The average physicochemical characteristics of water from upstream and downstream Borkena are presented in Table 4. pH, both in upstream and downstream, was higher than the limit values; Mg⁺² = 5.27 me/l, CO₃⁻² = 1.25 me/l, HCO₃^- = 9.10 me/l, Cu = 0.21 mg/l, Cr = 0.31 mg/l, and Cd = 0.03 mg/l were above the permissible limit of the FAO’s irrigation water quality standard. The mean concentration of EC = 0.96 ds/m, Na⁺ = 3.35 me/l, Cl⁻ = 7.67 me/l, and TDS = 612.98 mg/l is a moderate restriction for irrigation, and the value of Fe is very close to the limit (Table 4). The others are below the permissible limit of the FAO’s standard. However, prolonged application of this water under a poorly managed irrigation system could lead to the accumulation of these elements in the soil profile [23, 24].

Table 5 presents the t-test comparison of upstream and downstream water quality, and there were significant differences (at ) for the mean concentration of Mg⁺², Cl⁻, Pb, and Cu. However, there were no significant differences for pH, EC, Ca⁺, Na⁺, HCO₃^-, CO₃⁻², Fe, Mn, Cr, Cd, Ni, and TDS.

3.3. Levels of Pollutants in the Farm Soil

The physicochemical characteristics of sampled soils from the downstream of Borkena irrigated farmland in different irrigation phases and different depths are presented in Table 6. The average concentration of physicochemical parameters during the dry period (May) in the 2^nd irrigation phase is higher than from the rain period (June). This is because industrial effluents are discharged without being diluted with rainwater and might be due to the weak adsorption nature in the soil. The concentration of pH, CO₃⁻², HCO₃^-, and SAR is increasing within the depth. However, the concentration of EC, Mg⁺², Ca⁺², Na⁺, Cl⁻, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd, and Zn is decreasing along with the depth. This shows the movement of the chemical parameter, especially for heavy metals, is very slow, and the seepage level is minimal [25].

According to the FAO soil classification, soils showing EC < 0.7 ds/m, ESP < 15%, SAR<10, and pH from 6.5 to 8.5 are classified as normal soils. The average concentration of EC ranges from 0.8 to 0.9 ds/m during the dry period and from 0.6 to 07 ds/m during the rainy period but decreased along with the depth during the dry and rainy period. This shows that the EC of the downstream of Borkena irrigated farmland soil is a moderate restriction for irrigation (i.e., above the permissible limit of the FAO). The CO₃⁻² concentration ranges from 0.9 to 0.5 me/l during the dry and rainy periods which is above the permissible limit of the FAO. Generally, the concentrations of CO₃⁻², Cr, and Cd were above the permissible limit of the FAO. However, the average concentrations of Mg⁺², Ca⁺, Na⁺, Cl⁻, pH, HCO₃⁻², Fe, Mn, and Pb were below the permissible limit of the FAO. Similarly, Kumar and Chopra [26] reported the increment of the concentrations of pH, EC, Cl⁻, HCO₃^-, CO₃^2-, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Cr in the soil after irrigating with paper mill effluent for 12 weeks. Other studies also reported the increase in the concentrations of Ca, K, and Mg in the soil due to the wastewater application in irrigation [27, 28].

3.4. Effect of Industrial Effluent on the Irrigated Farm Soil

As shown in Table 4, the salt concentration in the downstream of Borkena irrigation water was 0.96 ds/m which is a slightly moderate restriction on its use. In the case of the soil sample, the value of EC ranges from 0.67 to 0.79 ds/m. Therefore, based on EC values of irrigation water, it is a slightly moderate restriction for irrigation, and a moderate salinity problem was developed which required leaching. SAR (8.59 to 8.68) value of water in downstream Borkena irrigated farmland soil samples showed no restriction for use. Soils with SAR values greater than 10 are usually considered sodic. According to the FAO soil classification of the normal soil, as stated above, results of the downstream Borkena irrigated farmland soils are considered normal. Other studies reported that the accumulation in soil was insignificant compared to being added, and a difference might be only noticeable in the long term [29–32].

The mean value of physicochemical characteristics of the soil sampled in different irrigation phases in different sample stations from the upstream- and downstream-irrigated farmland is presented in Table 7. The result shows that the concentration of CO₃⁻², HCO₃^-, Cr, Cd, and Ni was above the permissible limit of the FAO and not suitable for irrigation. In the case of cations, Na⁺ is the dominant ion followed by Ca⁺² and Mg⁺². The concentration of pH, CO₃⁻², HCO₃^-, and SAR was increased, while the others decreased with depth. For this study, the order of heavy metals’ concentrations is observed as follows: Fe > Cu > Pb > Cu > Mn > Cr > Cd > Zn. However, Marr et al. [33] reported Fe was the highest, while Cd was the least, Kumar and Chopra [26] reported the order of Pb > Cr > Cd > Zn > Cu after reirrigating with paper mill effluent for 12 weeks, and Tiwari et al. [34] reported the order of Fe > Mn > Zn > Cd > Cu > Pb > Cr > As after irrigating with industrial wastewater. The difference might be due to the differences in the wastewater characteristics used for irrigation and farm soil property. Generally, the long-term application of untreated and treated wastewater has resulted in the increment of pollutants in the soil [35–37].

4. Conclusions

The present study concludes that the industrial effluent drained to the Borkena River has affected the quality of irrigation water and farm soil. The river water quality of downstream showed higher concentrations of EC, Mg⁺², pH, CO₃⁻², HCO₃⁻², Cu, Cr, Cd, and TDS which were above the permissible limit of the FAO. Higher concentrations of heavy metals were also recorded during the dry period except for Mn, but Cr showed high seasonal variation. The soil analysis showed higher concentration of CO₃⁻², HCO₃^-, Cr, Cd, and Ni which was above the permissible limit of the FAO. In the case of cations, the dominancy is in the order of Na⁺ > Ca⁺² > Mg⁺². Along with the depth of the soil, the concentration of pH, CO₃⁻², HCO₃^-, and SAR increased, and the order observed for heavy metals was Fe > Cu > Pb > Cu > Mn > Cr > Cd > Zn. Generally, there are significant (at ) differences for the mean value of Mg⁺², Cl⁻, Pb, and Cu. The seasonal water application had some slight influence on soil chemical properties, i.e., the concentration of cations (Na⁺, Ca⁺², and Mg⁺²) was slightly lower than those in the dry period. Soils in the dry period, however, exhibited higher pH and HCO₃^- than those in the wet period. Hence, prolonged application of the polluted river under a poorly managed irrigation system could lead to the accumulation of these elements in the soil profile. To alleviate the problem, industries should be forced to treat their wastewater to the standard.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank ERA (Ethiopian Road Authority) for the financial support.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Table S1: GPS coordinates of the sampling sites. Supplementary Table S2: summary of water and soil samples in the study area. (Supplementary Materials)

References

S. Khalid, M. Shahid, C. Dumat et al., “Influence of groundwater and wastewater irrigation on lead accumulation in soil and vegetables: implications for health risk assessment and phytoremediation,” International Journal of Phytoremediation, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 1037–1046, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Bon, L. Parrot, and P. Moustier, “Sustainable urban agriculture in developing countries. A review,” Agronomy for Sustainable Development, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 21–32, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Henning, H. Snyman, and T. Aveling, “Plant-soil interactions of sludge-borne heavy metals and the effect on maize (Zea mays L.) seedling growth,” Water SA, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 71–78, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. M. Paruch, K. Pulikowski, A. Bawiec, and K. Pawęska, “Assessment of groundwater quality in areas irrigated with food industry wastewater: a case of wastewater utilisation from sugar and yeast factories,” Environmental Processes, vol. 4, pp. 1–14, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Birru, “Assessment of the fertility and pollution status of irrigated vegetable farms around Addis Ababa city,” Tech. Rep., Addis Ababa Agricultural Office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2002, Final Report.
View at: Google Scholar
Q. Li, J. Tang, T. Wang et al., “Impacts of sewage irrigation on soil properties of farmland in China: a review,” Solid Earth Discussions, pp. 1–24, 2017.
View at: Google Scholar
C. Becerra-Castro, A. R. Lopes, I. Vaz-Moreira, E. F. Silva, C. M. Manaia, and O. C. Nunes, “Wastewater reuse in irrigation: a microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health,” Environment International, vol. 75, pp. 117–135, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. K. Saha, R. Selladurai, M. V. Coumar, M. L. Dotaniya, S. Kundu, and A. K. Patra, Soil Pollution-An Emerging Threat to Agriculture, vol. 10, Springer, New York, NY, USA, 2017.
R. Ayers and D. Westcot, Water Quality for Agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy, 1985.
N. Gupta, K. K. Yadav, V. Kumar, S. Kumar, R. P. Chadd, and A. Kumar, “Trace elements in soil-vegetables interface: translocation, bioaccumulation, toxicity and amelioration - a review,” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 651, pp. 2927–2942, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Shiferaw, Productive Capacity and Economic Growth in Ethiopia, United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs, New York, NY, USA, 2017.
E. Zinabu, J. van der Kwast, P. Kelderman, and K. Irvine, “Estimating total nitrogen and phosphorus losses in a data-poor Ethiopian catchment,” Journal of Environmental Quality, vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1519–1527, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Kombolcha Meteorological Branch Directorate, Meteorological Information and Climate Records of Kombolcha Adiminstration City, KMBD, Kombolcha. Ethiopia, 2019.
FAO, Soil Bulletin 42, Soil Survey Investigation for Irrigation, Agriculture organization of the united nation, Rome, Italy, 1985.
U. S. L. Staff, “Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils,” Agriculture Handbook, vol. 60, pp. 83–100, 1954.
View at: Google Scholar
APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 18th Ed. edition, 1998.
J. C. Egbueri, “Water quality appraisal of selected farm provinces using integrated hydrogeochemical, multivariate statistical, and microbiological technique,” Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 997–1013, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. K. Mandal, S. K. Dutta, S. Pramanik, and R. K. Kole, “Assessment of river water quality for agricultural irrigation,” International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 451–462, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Koks, G. van Dijk, A. J. P. Smolders, L. P. M. Lamers, and C. Fritz, The Effects of Alkalinity and Cations on the Vitality ff Sphagnum Palustre L, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site
J. D. Rhoades, The Use of Saline Waters for Crop Production, FAO, Quebec City, Canada, 1992.
M. Gagan, “Water quality assessment of ganga canal system,” Journal of Advanced Scientific Research, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 19–24, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar
STOAS, Fish Farming in Tropical Fresh Water Ponds, Foundation for the development of Agricultural Education and Training, Wageningen, Netherlands, 1997.
M. A. Islam, D. Romić, M. A. Akber, and M. Romić, “Trace metals accumulation in soil irrigated with polluted water and assessment of human health risk from vegetable consumption in Bangladesh,” Environmental Geochemistry and Health, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 59–85, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. N. Karanja, M. Njenga, G. Prain et al., “Assessment of environmental and public health hazards in wastewater used for urban agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya,” Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 85–97, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
B. F. F. Pereira, Z. L. He, M. S. Silva et al., “Reclaimed wastewater: impact on soil–plant system under tropical conditions,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 192, no. 1, pp. 54–61, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
V. Kumar and A. K. Chopra, “Alterations in physico-chemical characteristics of soil after irrigation with paper mill effluent,” Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 7–22, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Khalid, M. Shahid, C. Dumat et al., “Influence of groundwater and wastewater irrigation on lead accumulation in soil and vegetables: implications for health risk assessment and phytoremediation,” International Journal of Phytoremediation, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 1037–1046, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Thapliyal, P. Vasudevan, M. G. Dastidar, M. Tandon, and S. Mishra, “Irrigation with domestic wastewater: responses on growth and yield of ladyfinger Abelmoschus esculentus and on soil nutrients,” Journal of Environmental Biology, vol. 32, no. 5, p. 645, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Bedbabis, B. Ben Rouina, M. Boukhris, and G. Ferrara, “Effect of irrigation with treated wastewater on soil chemical properties and infiltration rate,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 133, pp. 45–50, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Bedbabis, D. Trigui, C. Ben Ahmed et al., “Long-terms effects of irrigation with treated municipal wastewater on soil, yield and olive oil quality,” Agricultural Water Management, vol. 160, pp. 14–21, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. RusanMJ, S. Hinnawi, and L. Rousan, “Long term effect of wastewater irrigation of forage crops on soil and plant quality parameters,” Desalination, vol. 215, pp. 143–152, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. L. Qian and B. Mecham, “Long-term effects of recycled wastewater irrigation on soil chemical properties on golf course fairways,” Agronomy Journal, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 717–721, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Marr, H. Fyles, and W. Hendershot, “Trace metals in Montreal urban soils and the leaves of Taraxacum officinale,” Canadian Journal of Soil Science, vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 385–387, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. K. Tiwari, N. K. Singh, M. P. Patel, M. R. Tiwari, and U. N. Rai, “Metal contamination of soil and translocation in vegetables growing under industrial wastewater irrigated agricultural field of Vadodara, Gujarat, India,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, vol. 74, no. 6, pp. 1670–1677, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. K. Rattan, S. P. Datta, P. K. Chhonkar, K. Suribabu, and A. K. Singh, “Long-term impact of irrigation with sewage effluents on heavy metal content in soils, crops and groundwater-a case study,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 109, no. 3-4, pp. 310–322, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. A. Galal, “Long-term effect of MixedWastewater irrigation on soil properties, fruit quality and heavy metal contamination of citrus,” American Journal of Environmental Protection., vol. 3, pp. 100–105, 2015.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Del Mar Alguacil, E. Torrecillas, P. Torres, F. García-Orenes, and A. Roldán, “Long-term effects of irrigation with wastewater on soil AM fungi diversity and microbial activities: the implications for agro-ecosystem resilience,” PLoS One, vol. 7, Article ID e47680, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2021 Mohammed Jemal Awol et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

1405

Downloads

1323

Citations