Removal of Heavy Metal Ions (Pb2+, Co2+, and Cd2+) by Activated Carbon from Cypress Fruit: An Investigation of Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Isotherms

Al-Ma’abreh, Alaa M.; Hmedat, Dareen A.; Edris, Gada; Hamed, Mariam A.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/1984821

Journal of Chemistry

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Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Conclusion Data Availability Additional Points Disclosure Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2024 | Article ID 1984821 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/1984821

Removal of Heavy Metal Ions (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺) by Activated Carbon from Cypress Fruit: An Investigation of Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Isotherms

Alaa M. Al-Ma’abreh,¹Dareen A. Hmedat,¹Gada Edris,¹and Mariam A. Hamed¹

Academic Editor: Liviu Mitu

Received30 Oct 2023

Revised05 Apr 2024

Accepted10 Apr 2024

Published25 Apr 2024

Abstract

In this study, activated carbon cloth (ACC) derived from cypress fruit was employed to investigate the adsorption of Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Co²⁺ from synthetic aqueous systems. The correlation between adsorption features (pH, adsorbent dosage, temperature, initial ion concentration, and contact time) and adsorbent removal efficiency was investigated. Analysis by FT-IR, SEM, and EDS was employed to confirm the adsorption of metal ions onto the ACC. Results revealed the best adsorption efficiencies for heavy metal ions were attained at pH = 7, 11, 6; the adsorbent dosage of 0.06, 0.08, and 0.04 g for Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Co²⁺, respectively; the ion initial concentration of 50 mg·L⁻¹ for Pb²⁺ and 70 mg·L⁻¹ for both Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺; and contact time of 90 minutes for both Pb²⁺ and Co²⁺ and 120 minutes for Cd²⁺. Kinetic studies exposed the second-order adsorption of all aforementioned heavy metal ions. Additionally, the equilibrium data were fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich’s isotherms, while the former performed better than the latter. The maximum adsorption capacity values for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ were attained to 81.87, 55.30, and 117.3 mg·g⁻¹, respectively. Considering the thermodynamic data, the studied processes were exothermic and spontaneous.

1. Introduction

Water pollution is a global environmental challenge that continues to pose significant threats to the well-being of both ecosystems and human populations. As one of the most vital resources on our planet, water serves as a lifeline for all living organisms, sustaining biodiversity, agriculture, industry, and domestic needs [1]. However, human activities, industrialization, agricultural practices, and improper waste disposal have led to the contamination of water bodies with various pollutants. These contaminants include a broad variety of materials that end up in rivers, lakes, seas, and groundwater sources, such as heavy metals, hazardous compounds, fertilizers, and microplastics [2]. The effects of water pollution are extensive, leading to the deterioration of aquatic environments, a decline in biodiversity, and the threat to many species. Furthermore, drinking tainted water puts one’s health in danger for both acute and chronic illnesses. Since the level of water pollution is still rising, strong scientific research, environmentally friendly management techniques, and cooperative efforts at the local, national, and international levels are all needed to address this situation [3]. An urgent environmental worry nowadays is heavy metal pollution, which is brought on by the discharge of hazardous elements like lead (Pb), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) into the environment. Because they are the result of several anthropogenic activities, these heavy metals are extremely dangerous to natural systems and human health. It is well known that hazardous elements may bioaccumulate in organisms and be persistent in the environment. This can have detrimental consequences on human organs, such as the kidneys, liver, and nervous system. Furthermore, the imbalance of an ecosystem is upset by heavy metal contamination, which hurts plant growth, soil fertility, and aquatic life. Providing efficient mitigation solutions requires an understanding of the origins, distribution, and mechanisms of heavy metal contamination [4]. The development of operative and competent technologies for the removal of heavy metal is serious as the issue of heavy metal-induced water contamination arises. Adsorption is one of the most promising and well-studied strategies for removing heavy metals from water [5]. Adsorption is constructed on the interaction of an adsorbent surface with the heavy metal ions existing in the water, which causes the ions to be engaged and removed [6]. This study focused on the removal of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ because they are widely recognized as environmental pollutants with significant implications for human health and ecosystems. Therefore, they have a prevalence and potential impact on water quality. These ions are also known to pose serious health risks even at low concentrations. Child neurotoxicity from Pb²⁺ is well known. Exposure to cobalt ions leads to respiratory and cardiovascular concerns, whereas exposure to cadmium ions leads to kidney damage and other health complications. It is required to investigate these metals to realize and lower their potential adverse health effects. Cypress fruit was preferred as an adsorbent in this study because of its availability and approachability in the region and due to the exhibit of distinctive features that strengthen its adsorption capacity. The cypress fruit-based activated carbon is characterized by its porous structure, which grants it a significant surface area and enhances its effectiveness in arresting pollutants. Moreover, the adsorption effectiveness of cypress fruit is prompted by its intrinsic chemical composition, which is in turn influenced by the local climate and soil conditions. The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential of employing cypress fruit-based activated carbon as an adsorbent for removing Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ from water. This study also focuses on optimizing the conditions for efficient adsorption, studying features, such as adsorbent dosage, pH, agitation time, and initial metal ion concentration. By achieving high metal removal efficiency via adsorption onto cypress fruit-based activated carbon, this research intends to improve the remediation of water, reduce environmental contamination, and promote sustainable water treatment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemicals

Lead (II) nitrate, cobalt (II) nitrate hexahydrate, and cadmium nitrate were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid were obtained from Floka. Double-distilled water was used for the preparation of all solutions.

2.2. Preparation of Solutions

1000 ppm stock solutions of Pb(NO₃)₂, Co(NO₃)₂·6H₂O, and Cd(NO₃)₂ were prepared in double-distilled water in three separate 100-mL volumetric flasks. Thereafter, the stock solutions were diluted with distilled water to the desired concentrations. A solution mixture of the three metal ions was prepared from the stock solutions, with prescribed concentrations of each. The pH value of the solutions was adjusted using sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid (0.5 M).

2.3. The Preparation and Characterization of Adsorbent

Cypress fruit was collected from the Isra University campus in Jordan. Subsequently, the cypress fruits were rinsed, dried at 80°C for 48 hours, ground, impregnated with 98% phosphoric acid, heated to 450°C, and then washed to neutralization [7]. The activated carbon cloth (ACC) that was prepared experienced a procedure involving crushing and sieving, which led to the achievement of a particle size measuring 180 μm. The functional groups at the ACC surface were assessed using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR, TENSOR model from BRUKER). The adsorption process was confirmed using the scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Apreo 2 S LoVac) technique.

2.4. Adsorption Experiment

A solution with varying concentrations of the heavy metal ion was combined with a specific quantity of ACC and afterward agitated for a predetermined duration. The quantification of the long-term presence of the heavy metal ion was conducted utilizing an atomic absorption spectrometer. The study investigated the adsorption parameters, including the dose of activated carbon cloth (ACC), the initial concentration of the heavy metal ion, the pH of the solution, the duration of agitation, and the temperature. An experiment was performed using a mixture solution of the three metal ions at the found optimal conditions. The amount of the heavy metal ion was analyzed using a ContrAA 800 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. Equations (1) and (2), as proposed by [8], were utilized to quantify the concentration of the heavy metal ion and calculate the percentage of removal achieved by ACC.

The adsorbed amount of heavy metal ions in milligrams per gram (mg/g) is expressed as , and the initial concentration of heavy metal ions in milligrams per liter (mg/L) is expressed as . C represents the equilibrium concentration of heavy metal ions in milligrams per liter (mg/L), V represents the volume of the solution in liters (L), and m represents the mass of the ACC in grams (g).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Characterization of Adsorbent

3.1.1. FT-IR

FT-IR instrument with ATR unit (TENSOR model, BRUKER, Germany) was used to analyze samples. The presence of distinct peaks in the FT-IR spectra (Figure 1) confirmed the presence of specific functional groups, which are essential for understanding their adsorption properties and potential applications. The FT-IR analysis conducted on the samples, namely, ACC adsorbent, ACC-Pb²⁺, ACC-Co²⁺, and ACC-Cd²⁺, indicated the presence of several functional groups in each of them. Consequently, as shown in Table 1, the presence of heavy metal ions (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺) on ACC is confirmed by the apparent variations in both absorbance and intensity. For example, there are shifts in peaks related to C-H, C=O, and O-H groups after the adsorption of heavy metal ions. The appearance of peaks in the range of 400–600 cm⁻¹, for example, at 507, 481, and 489 cm⁻¹ for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, respectively, confirmed the coordination between metal ions and oxygen atoms on the ACC surface.

3.1.2. SEM and EDS

The changes in surface characteristics of ACC adsorbent after the adsorption of the heavy metal ion (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Mix) confirm the adsorption process as shown in Figures 2(a)–2(e).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was employed to investigate the changes in the pore and surface characteristics of the ACC samples both before and after ion adsorption. According to the SEM picture depicted in Figure 2(a), it can be observed that the surface of the adsorbent material exhibits a porous structure, characterized by a significant quantity of pores distributed over its surface. This morphology renders the adsorbent material suitable for effectively removing contaminants. Additionally, the SEM micrographs presented in Figures 2(b)–2(e) present the adsorbent’s surface after the profitable removal of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, Cd²⁺, and a mixture of the three ions. These micrographs reveal that the surface pores were effectively covered anticipating the adsorption of the aforementioned ions.

The EDS analysis findings (Figure 3) show the presence of many elements, such as carbon (C), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), and potassium (K), in the adsorbent (ACC) that was synthesized. Furthermore, after the adsorption process of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, it is evident from the results of the EDS study that these elements were detected after adsorption. This observation signifies that the aforementioned ions were effectively adsorbed by ACC. Moreover, carbon has emerged as a prominent element within the studied samples of activated carbon. According to the data presented in Table 2, the weight percentages of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ within the activated carbon framework were found to be 5.64%, 3.39%, and 6.85%, respectively. This implies that the aforementioned ions have been affixed to the active sites of the ACC through the adsorption process. The data presented in the figures also indicate a greater affinity of the adsorbent derived from cypress fruit for the removal of cadmium ions from the aqueous solution, as compared to the other two ions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.2. Batch Adsorption

3.2.1. Impact of the Adsorbent Mass

The percentage of adsorption is influenced by the total amount of the adsorbent material. In the present investigation, the administered amount of ACC ranges from 0.02 to 0.1 grams, with the temperature maintained at 25.0 ± 1°C. The results presented in Figure 4 demonstrate the most effective amount of ACC for the removal of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, which have been determined to be 0.06, 0.08, and 0.04 g, respectively. There has been a notable increase in the adsorption of the aforementioned ions starting out, attributed to the presence of easily accessible active sites for adsorption. However, this adsorption decreases as the system approaches equilibrium.

3.2.2. Impact of the Ions Initial Concentration

The study investigated the influence of the initial concentration on the adsorption of the heavy metal ions aforementioned on ACC. The concentration range experienced was between 30 and 120 mg·L⁻¹ at 25 ± 1°C. Figure 5 demonstrates the influence of the initial concentration on the adsorption of heavy metal ions onto ACC. The experiment yielded ideal adsorption percentages of 96.48% for Pb²⁺, 83.54% for Co²⁺, and 91.21% for Cd²⁺ onto ACC samples weighing 0.06 g, 0.08 g, and 0.04 g, respectively. The optimal concentrations of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ were found to be 50, 70, and 70 mg·L⁻¹, respectively. The rise in the concentration of heavy metal ions resulted in a corresponding increase in the number of occupied sites on the surface of the ACC. Consequently, this increase in occupied sites led to a decrease in the adsorption process ended by equilibrium.

3.2.3. Impact of Adsorption Duration

The batch adsorption studies involved agitating 0.06, 0.08, and 0.04 g of ACC with 50 ml of 50 mg·L⁻¹ Pb²⁺ and 70 mg·L⁻¹ Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ at 25 ± 1°C for a time period ranging from 30 to 180 minutes. Figure 6 shows the variation in the adsorption of the aforementioned ions onto the ACC as time increased. The optimal adsorption duration was 90 minutes for Pb²⁺ and Co²⁺, and 120 minutes for Cd²⁺.

3.2.4. Determination of pHpzc

Determining the pHpzc value is of significant importance as it provides insight into the pH level at which the surface of the adsorbent attains neutrality. The pH at the point of zero charges (pHpzc) was determined by subjecting a mixture of 0.15 g of ACC and 50.0 ml of a 0.1 M NaCl solution to agitation throughout a pH range of 2 to 12 for approximately 24 hours [7]. According to the results presented in Figure 7, it can be observed that the surface of ACC exhibits neutrality at a pH value of 7.0.

3.2.5. Impact of pH

In this investigation, 50 ml of heavy metal ion solution was agitated with a predetermined amount of ACC as follows: 50.0 mg·L⁻¹ Pb²⁺ with 0.06 g ACC for 90 minutes, 70 mg·L⁻¹ Co²⁺ with 0.08 g ACC for 90 minutes, and 70 mg·L⁻¹ Cd²⁺ with 0.04 g ACC for 120 minutes. These adsorption processes were conducted at a temperature of 25 ± 1°C and a pH ranging from 3 to 11. Based on the results shown in Figure 8, it can be concluded that the pH level does not exert any significant influence on the adsorption process of Pb²⁺ onto ACC. The utilization of a neutral solution is considered optimal for the adsorption of both Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺ ions.

3.2.6. Adsorption of Metal Ions Mixture

A batch adsorption experiment was conducted by shaking 0.08 g of ACC with a 50 ml solution consisting of 50 Pb²⁺, 70 mg·L⁻¹ of Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ for 100 minutes. The findings indicated that the ACC exhibited a higher affinity toward Pb²⁺ compared to Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺, with percentages of 96.5%, 89.7%, and 65%, respectively.

3.3. Kinetic and Mechanism

Linear and nonlinear kinetics models, performing pseudo-first-order (PFO), pseudo-second-order (PSO), and intraparticle diffusion (IPD), were hired to investigate the kinetics of the adsorption process of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ onto the surface of ACC. Equations 3 to 6 were utilized to signify the adsorption of the aforementioned heavy metal ions onto ACC.where is the amount of metal ion per unit mass of ACC (mg·g⁻¹) at equilibrium, is the amount of metal ion per unit mass of ACC at time t (mg·g⁻¹) at equilibrium, and and are the rate constant in min⁻¹ and g·mg⁻¹·min⁻¹, respectively.

The results depicted in Figures 9 and 10 demonstrate conclusively that the pseudo-second-order model affords the most accurate representation of the kinetics associated with the adsorption of the aforementioned ions onto ACC. The results of the nonlinear models are consistent with those of the linear models. Those results are succinctly presented in Table 3.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

(c)

The mechanism of the heavy metal ions adsorption onto ACC was demonstrated using intraparticle diffusion, as shown in equations (9) and (10) [9]:where is the heavy metal ion amount (mg·g⁻¹), is the rate constant (mg·g⁻¹·min^−0.5), and is the square root of time (min^0.5). According to the intraparticle diffusion model, it can be inferred that when the intercept C equals zero, the sole factor limiting the rate of the process is the intraparticle diffusion. When the constant C is greater than zero, the relevance of surface adsorption increases. Figure 11 proves that surface adsorption, not intraparticle diffusion, is the rate-limiting step in the adsorption process for Pb²⁺, while the two steps control the adsorption processes of both Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺.

(a)

(b)

Table 3 summarizes the and constant values for all kinetics models.

3.4. Adsorption Isotherms

Adsorption isotherm models are usually employed to examine the correlation between the adsorbent and the adsorbate, as well as to ascertain the nature of the adsorption process, whether it is physical or chemical in nature. The adsorption mechanism of the metal ions (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺) on ACC was investigated using Langmuir (equations (9) and (10)), Freundlich (equations (11) and (12)), Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) (equations (13) and (14)), and Temkin (equations (15) and (16)) isothermal models [10].where is the equilibrium magnitude of the metal ion (mg·g⁻¹), is the equilibrium concentration of the metal ion (mg·L⁻¹), is the constant of Langmuir isotherm that usually in use to determine adsorbate association to the adsorbent surface, and is the adsorption capacity (mg·g⁻¹).

The constant represents the Freundlich isotherm constant, measured in units of mg·g⁻¹. Meanwhile, the parameter n denotes the adsorption intensity.

The binding constant A is measured in units of g⁻¹ when the system is at equilibrium, while the adsorption heat is consistently related to the variable B.

The maximum theoretical capacity () is expressed in units of mol·g⁻¹, whereas the D-R constant () is measured in units of mol²·kJ⁻². The Polanyi potential (Ɛ) in the D-R isotherm can be determined by employing equation (17), whereas the mean energy of adsorption (in kJ·mol⁻¹) can be calculated using equation (18) as follows:

Figures 12(a)–12(d) show the linear form of the four isotherms. Table 4 summarizes plot-based correlation coefficients (), dimensional components, and constants. The Langmuir isotherm adequately assessed ACC metal ion removal, as shown by the high values (0.9971, 0.9926, and 0.9951 for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, respectively) indicating ACC surface uniformity and adsorption site homogeneity. Based on D-R isotherm calculations, Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ have energy values of 25, 7.538, and 8.452 kJ·mol⁻¹, respectively. Co²⁺ is physically removed, whereas Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ are chemically removed. The negative Temkin constant values B (−6.04, −14.0, and −25.68 for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, respectively) indicate a significant interaction between the metal ion and the ACC adsorbent [11].

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.5. Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic studies were performed under controlled conditions at temperatures of 298 ± 1 K, 308 ± 1 K, and 318 ± 1 K, with a consistent agitation duration of 1.0 hour. Thermodynamic parameters, namely, ΔG°, ΔH°, and ΔS°, were computed to assess the effectiveness of metal ion removal by ACC. These results are presented in Table 5. The enthalpy change (ΔH°) and entropy change (ΔS°) associated with the removal of metal ions were determined by analyzing the slope and intercept of the plot of the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant (ln ) against the reciprocal of temperature (1/T), as described in equation (19). The calculation of the standard Gibbs free energy, ΔG°, was performed using equation (20) as follows:where is dimensionless and corresponds to the adsorption equilibrium constant according to the best-fitted model, and R is the universal constant of ideal gases (8.314 J·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹). The +ve obtained value of ΔG° (11.81, 11.85, and 11.88 kJ·mol⁻¹) indicates the nonspontaneity of the metal ion adsorption by ACC. The +ve acquired value of ΔH° (22.24, 21.08, and 34.26 kJ·mol⁻¹ for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, respectively) indicates the endothermic nature of the aforementioned ions [12]. The +ve value of ΔS° indicates adsorbate/adsorbent interface anomaly and adsorbent affinity [13].

3.6. Synthetic Sample

Three synthetic samples were prepared by dissolving different kinds of heavy metal salts and other chemicals in tap water and agitated with 0.07 g of ACC under the optimum conditions for each ion. Figure 13 proves the efficacy of ACC in the adsorption of metal ions Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺.

4. Adsorption/Desorption

Based on previous studies, it was found that 0.1 M hydrochloric acid is an appropriate choice for the recovery investigation. Metal ions of Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ were eluted from ACC and subjected to atomic absorption analysis. The percentage of recovery was computed using the following equation [14]:where is the desorbed concentration of the metal ions, and is the adsorbed concentration of the metal ions. Figure 14 confirms that after five cycles, the recovery of metal ions declined from 89.29% to 73.14% for Pb²⁺, from 66.49% to 43.77% for Co²⁺, and from 64.94 to 51.36 for Cd²⁺ signaling the ability of ACC to be reused several times.

5. Comparison with Other Activated Carbon

The maximum heavy metal ions removal capacities of ACC were compared to other activated carbon adsorbent (Table 6). The comparison shows that ACO has an adsorption capacity of 97.91 mg·g⁻¹ near to many of the other reported adsorbents.

6. Conclusion

The current study validates the efficient removal of heavy metal ions (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺) from aqueous solutions and synthetic samples by the employment of activated carbon prepared from cypress fruit (ACC) through batch adsorption. The results of the experiments have definitively demonstrated the optimal parameters that are most suitable for attaining the highest possible removal of heavy metal ions (Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺) using ACC. It is clear from the experimental data that the best conditions for ACC to remove Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺ are 90 minutes of shaking for Pb²⁺ and Co²⁺, 120 minutes for Cd²⁺, and 0.06, 0.08, and 0.04 g of ACC for Pb²⁺, Co²⁺, and Cd²⁺, respectively. Additionally, the results revealed that Pb²⁺ is best removed in a neutral solution, but a basic solution works better for Co²⁺ and acidic solutions work better for Cd²⁺. ACC showed a higher affinity toward Pb²⁺ compared to Co²⁺ and Cd²⁺. Kinetics and isothermal analyses have shown that the adsorption of heavy metal ions by ACC closely matches both the Freundlich isothermal model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Moreover, the thermodynamic analysis demonstrated that ACC uses an endothermic, nonspontaneous method to remove heavy metal ions from the environment. The effectiveness of an ACC would decrease after five cycles, but it would yet be functional.

Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Additional Points

Statement of Novelty. The novelty of this research lies in the comprehensive investigation of kinetics, thermodynamics, and isotherms, providing a holistic understanding of the adsorption process. The unique source of activated carbon from cypress fruit sets this study apart, offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution for heavy metal removal. Statement of Industrial Relevance. The findings of this research bear significant industrial relevance by presenting an efficient and eco-friendly method for removing hazardous heavy metal ions from industrial effluents. The use of activated carbon from cypress fruit not only addresses environmental concerns but also offers a sustainable alternative for industries seeking effective water treatment solutions.

Disclosure

The authors confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design and were responsible for material preparation, data collection, and analysis. Alaa Mahmoud Al-Ma’abreh wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their appreciation to Isra University Innovation Center (IUIC) for the vital role in testing the samples. The state-of-the-art infrastructure at IUIC significantly contributed to the accuracy of our findings, and we are grateful for their commitment and professionalism. This research was funded by Isra University (grant no. 8-38/2020/2021).

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Copyright © 2024 Alaa M. Al-Ma’abreh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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