GDF-15 as a Target and Biomarker for Diabetes and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Translational Prospective

Figure 2

GDF-15 regulates signaling pathways essential for cardioprotection. GDF-15 shows cardioprotective effect through activation of ALK type 1 receptors (ALK 1–7) and phosphorylation of Smad2/3 and Smad1/5/8. After phosphorylation, Smad translocates to the nucleus in the form of heteromeric complex with Smad 4 and activates antihypertrophic pathway. GDF-15 also activates PI3 K/AKT/eNOS/NO pathway and shows cardioprotection. GDF-15 inhibits epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) transactivation and NF-B/JNK/caspase-3 pathway to show its cardioprotective effect.