Danish Nationwide Data Reveal a Link between Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetic Retinopathy, and Glaucoma

Table 2

Multivariable Cox regression model analyses showing the hazard ratios for glaucoma by antidiabetic drugs used in patients with DM. The effect of complications such as diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy was investigated, as well as the concomitant medications used, such as antihypertensive drugs. RAS: renin-angiotensin system; PE: parameter estimate; SE: standard error; HR: hazard ratio.

Model	Age ≥ 40 years				All ages
	⁢1		⁢2		⁢3		⁢4
	PE; (SE)	HR	PE; (SE)	HR	PE; (SE)	HR	PE; (SE)	HR
DR; (Reference: no DR)	(0.08)	1.4	(0.04)	1.57	(0.07)	1.4	(0.04)	1.55
Diabetic nephropathy	−0.02; (0.14)	0.98	(0.05)	1.12	0.03; (0.13)	1.03	(0.05)	1.14
Hypertension; (Reference: no antihypertensives)	0.06; (0.03)	1.06			(0.03)	1.12
Gender; (Reference: males)	−0.01; (0.03)	0.99	−0.01; (0.03)	0.99	0; (0.03)	1	0; (0.03)	1
Nephropathy × DR	(0.12)	1.4			(0.11)	1.41
Nephropathy × hypertension	0.05; (0.15)	1.05			0.01; (0.14)	1.01
DR × hypertension	0.1; (0.09)	1.1			0.08; (0.09)	1.08
Biguanides	0.17; (0.16)	1.18	0.17; (0.16)	1.19	0.24; (0.14)	1.27	0.24; (0.14)	1.28
Combination	(0.33)	1.91	(0.33)	1.93	(0.32)	2.04	(0.32)	2.07
GLP-1-analogues and DDP-IV-inhibitors	−0.05; (0.52)	0.95	−0.05; (0.52)	0.96	0.26; (0.47)	1.3	0.27; (0.47)	1.31
Glitazones	(0.47)	3.73	(0.47)	3.72	(0.47)	3.88	(0.47)	3.89
Insulin and insulin analogues (slow)	0.55; (0.41)	1.74	0.57; (0.41)	1.77	0.47; (0.4)	1.59	0.48; (0.4)	1.62
Insulin and insulin analogues (slow combined with rapid)	(0.18)	1.49	(0.18)	1.49	(0.16)	1.59	(0.16)	1.6
Insulin and insulin analogues (intermediate)	0; (0.18)	1	0.01; (0.18)	1.01	0.12; (0.16)	1.13	0.13; (0.16)	1.14
Meglitinides	0.27; (0.19)	1.31	0.27; (0.19)	1.31	(0.18)	1.43	(0.18)	1.43
Sulphonylurea	0.29; (0.16)	1.34	0.3; (0.16)	1.35	(0.14)	1.49	(0.14)	1.5
α-Glucosidase inhibitors	0.21; (0.29)	1.24	0.21; (0.29)	1.24	0.33; (0.28)	1.4	0.34; (0.28)	1.4
RAS + β-blocker			(0.06)	0.87			−0.09; (0.06)	0.92
RAS + antiadrenergic			(0.18)	1.68			(0.18)	1.75
RAS + Ccb			(0.05)	1.21			(0.05)	1.25
RAS + Diu			(0.04)	1.18			(0.04)	1.24
RAS + Vas			0.23; (0.13)	1.26			(0.13)	1.28
RAS β-blocker + 1 other			−0.03; (0.07)	0.97			0.01; (0.07)	1.01
RAS + (other ≥ 2)			0.11; (0.09)	1.12			(0.08)	1.18
β-Blocker + other antihyp. drugs ≥ 1			−0.03; (0.05)	0.97			0.03; (0.05)	1.03
Other antihyp. drugs ≥ 2			0.09; (0.05)	1.09			(0.05)	1.16
Age 50–59 years; (ref 40–49)	(0.06)	1.62	(0.06)	1.63
Age 60–69 years; (ref 40–49)	(0.06)	2.46	(0.06)	2.48
Age 70–79 years; (ref 40–49)	(0.06)	3.16	(0.06)	3.19
Age > 80 years; (ref 40–49)	(0.07)	3.03	(0.07)	3.06
Age 21–40 years; (ref < 21)					(0.3)	2.91	(0.3)	2.95
Age 41–60 years; (ref < 21)					(0.3)	10.25	(0.3)	10.39
Age 61–80 years; (ref < 21)					(0.3)	19.25	(0.3)	19.6
Age > 80 years; (ref < 21)					(0.3)	20.8	(0.3)	21.23
Number of individuals		238,671	238,671		277,266		277,266

⁢, ⁢, and ⁢.