Journal of Diabetes Research

Research Article

Correlates of Calcaneal Quantitative Ultrasound Parameters in Patients with Diabetes: The Study on the Assessment of Determinants of Muscle and Bone Strength Abnormalities in Diabetes

Table 1

Clinical characteristics of study subjects, overall and by gender.


	All	Females	Males

N (%)	400 (100.0)	172 (43.0)	228 (57.0)
T1DM, n (%)	80 (20.0)	42 (24.4)	38 (16.7)	0.055
Age, years	61.9 ± 13.6	63.0 ± 13.8	61.1 ± 13.4	0.155
Smoking, n (%)				<0.001
Never	237 (59.2)	132 (76.7)	105 (46.1)
Former	105 (26.3)	22 (12.8)	83 (36.4)
Current	58 (14.5)	18 (10.5)	40 (17.5)
Alcohol intake, n (%)				<0.001
No	220 (55.0)	133 (77.3)	87 (38.2)
Low	130 (32.5)	39 (22.7)	91 (39.9)
Moderate	42 (10.5)	0 (0.0)	42 (18.4)
High	8 (2.0)	0 (0)	8 (3.5)
PA, n (%)				<0.001
Sedentary	73 (18.2)	40 (23.3)	33 (14.5)
Inactive	130 (32.5)	69 (40.1)	61 (26.7)
Active
Low PA	84 (21.0)	31 (18.0)	53 (23.3)
Moderate PA	77 (19.3)	23 (13.4)	54 (23.7)
High PA	36 (9.0)	9 (5.2)	27 (11.8)
Upper body muscle strength, N	221.7 ± 92.7	157.3 ± 49.1	270.1 ± 88.2	<0.001
Lower body muscle strength, N	135.5 ± 62.8	95.7 ± 39.4	164.8 ± 60.7	<0.001
VO_2max, ml/min/kg	35.3 ± 12.1	33.3 ± 12.6	36.0 ± 11.8	0.182
Family history of DM, n (%)	173 (43.3)	71 (41.3)	102 (44.7)	0.490
Duration of DM, years	15.6 ± 10.0	16.7 ± 10.3	14.7 ± 9.7	0.048
HbA_1c, %	7.15 ± 1.44	7.24 ± 1.41	7.09 ± 1.46	0.313
Glucose, mmol/l	8.59 ± 3.51	8.39 ± 3.35	8.74 ± 3.63	0.323
BMI, kg/m²	28.8 ± 5.7	29.57 ± 6.83	28.23 ± 4.62	0.020
Fat mass, %	29.6 ± 10.0	37.00 ± 7.35	24.09 ± 7.86	<0.001
Fat free mass, kg	55.2 ± 11.2	45.50 ± 6.66	62.44 ± 7.95	<0.001
Waist circumference, cm	97.5 ± 13.9	94.16 ± 14.57	100.07 ± 12.90	<0.001
Triglycerides, mmol/l	1.65 ± 1.06	1.90 ± 0.63	1.99 ± 0.70	0.016
Total cholesterol, mmol/l	4.77 ± 0.99	4.98 ± 0.95	4.61 ± 0.99	<0.001
HDL cholesterol, mmol/l	1.28 ± 0.37	1.43 ± 0.37	1.16 ± 0.32	<0.001
LDL cholesterol, mmol/l	2.82 ± 0.98	2.91 ± 0.90	2.75 ± 1.04	0.097
SBP, mmHg	135.0 ± 17.2	137.35 ± 18.58	133.22 ± 15.81	0.017
DBP, mmHg	78.7 ± 8.9	78.95 ± 9.77	78.51 ± 8.23	0.622
Carotid IMT, mm	1.01 ± 0.16	0.98 ± 0.17	1.02 ± 0.16	0.025
ABI	0.89 ± 0.15	0.87 ± 0.15	0.91 ± 0.15	0.019
Uric acid, μmol/l	294.1 ± 99.7	267.1 ± 101.6	312.7 ± 93.9	<0.001
Plasma nitrogen, mmol/l	16.9 ± 7.1	17.2 ± 7.7	16.6 ± 6.5	0.448
Serum creatinine, μmol/l	99.3 ± 35.1	89.7 ± 30.5	106.6 ± 36.6	<0.001
eGFR, ml/min/1.73 m²	68.3 ± 20.2	65.1 ± 20.0	70.7 ± 20.1	0.006
ACR, mg/g	58.6 ± 65.5	56.1 ± 79.9	60.5 ± 52.2	0.507
PMN distal latency, m/s	4.98 ± 0.65	4.80 ± 0.58	5.12 ± 0.67	<0.001
PMN amplitude, mV	3.57 ± 1.35	3.62 ± 1.25	3.53 ± 1.42	0.480
PMN conduction velocity, m/s	44.8 ± 4.3	45.6 ± 3.7	44.2 ± 4.6	0.002
SSN distal latency, m/s	3.29 ± 0.72	3.19 ± 0.66	3.36 ± 0.75	0.018
SSN amplitude, mV	11.6 ± 8.0	11.9 ± 8.2	11.4 ± 8.0	0.560
SSN conduction velocity, m/s	39.5 ± 11.4	40.0 ± 11.5	39.2 ± 11.3	0.496
VPT malleolus, mV	25.9 ± 13.9	25.0 ± 13.7	26.6 ± 14.1	0.262
VPT hallux, mV	20.8 ± 13.7	20.0 ± 13.3	21.5 ± 14.0	0.296
Resting HR, beats/min	66.9 ± 10.1	69.0 ± 9.3	65.4 ± 10.5	0.001
HR response to deep breathing, EI ratio	1.24 ± 0.16	1.24 ± 0.15	1.24 ± 0.16	0.818
HR response to cough test, CT ratio	1.22 ± 0.15	1.20 ± 0.16	1.24 ± 0.15	0.027
HR response to standing, 30 : 15 ratio	1.14 ± 0.13	1.13 ± 0.12	1.15 ± 0.13	0.105
SBP response to standing, Δ(mmHg)	4.92 ± 6.48	5.39 ± 6.81	4.56 ± 6.22	0.214
CVD, n (%)	51 (12.8)	11 (6.4)	40 (17.5)	0.001
CKD, n (%)				<0.0001
No	237 (59.3)	100 (58.1)	137 (60.1)
Albuminuria alone	54 (13.5)	13 (7.6)	41 (18.0)
Reduced eGFR alone	68 (17.0)	42 (24.4)	26 (11.4)
Both	41 (10.2)	17 (9.9)	24 (10.5)
DR, n (%)				0.317
No	262 (65.5)	107 (62.2)	155 (68.0)
Nonadvanced	63 (15.7)	27 (15.7)	36 (15.8)
Advanced	75 (18.8)	38 (22.1)	37 (16.2)
DPN, n (%)				<0.0001
No	117 (29.2)	51 (29.6)	66 (29.0)
Polyneuropathy
Possible	53 (13.2)	28 (16.3)	25 (11.0)
Probable	19 (4.8)	16 (9.3)	3 (1.3)
Confirmed	153 (38.2)	68 (39.5)	85 (37.3)
Subclinical	35 (8.8)	8 (4.7)	27 (11.8)
Focal or multifocal neuropathy	15 (3.8)	1 (0.6)	14 (6.1)
Diabetes-associated neuropathy	8 (2.0)	0 (0.0)	8 (3.5)
CAN, n (%)				0.817
No	267 (66.8)	114 (66.3)	153 (67.1)
Borderline	40 (10.0)	15 (8.7)	25 (11.0)
Yes	93 (23.2)	43 (25.0)	50 (21.9)

T1DM = type 1 DM; PA = physical activity; VO_2max = maximal oxygen consumption; HbA_1c = hemoglobin A_1c; BMI = body mass index; SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; IMT = intima-media thickness; ABI = ankle-brachial index; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; ACR = albumin : creatinine ratio; PMN peroneal motor nerve; SSN = sural sensory nerve; VPT = vibration perception threshold; HR = heart rate; EI = expiration-to-inspiration; CT = cough test; CVD = cardiovascular disease; CKD = chronic kidney disease; DPN = diabetic peripheral neuropathy; CAN = cardiac autonomic neuropathy.