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Study format | Clinical features/major findings | Microbiome changes | Metagenome/metabolome changes | Reference |
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Longitudinal infant T1DM | Out of 33 genetically predisposed T1DM infants, 12% developed T1DM, whereas 21% developed T1DM autoantibodies during the first 4 years of life | A decrease in alpha diversity and an overabundance of Blautia and Rikenellaceae | Modulation of sphingomyelin, lithocholic acid, lipids, branch-chained amino acid concentrations, and sugar transport pathways | [55] |
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Longitudinal infant T1DM | All four enrolled infants developed autoimmunity and T1DM within the first 3 years | Drop in alpha diversity and increase in Bacteroidetes (Bacteroides spp.) and decrease in Firmicutes | Not applicable | [43] |
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Metagenomics of the microbiome in T1DM patients | Microbial fermentation and functional components promoted autoimmune destruction of beta cells | Higher Bacteroides and lower Prevotella abundance | T1DM patients had higher carbohydrate metabolism, adhesions, motility, phages, prophages, sulfur metabolism, and stress responses | [42] |
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Metagenomics of the microbiome in T2DM patients microbiome | Not applicable | Microbial dysbiosis characterized by a decrease in butyrate-producing bacteria and an increase in the populations of various opportunistic pathogens | Higher gut oxidative stress and membrane transport of sugars | [46] |
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Metagenome in T2DM women | Elevated glucose, C peptide, leptin, triglycerides, and oxidative stress | Enriched with Lactobacillus sp. and depletion of Clostridium sp. | Higher sugar metabolism and transport, fatty acid synthesis, and oxidative stress pathways | [58] |
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Adult T2DM | Ratio of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes correlated positively and significantly with plasma glucose concentrations | Higher alpha diversity. Changes in beta diversity were characterized by higher Bacteroidetes in T2DM cases and Firmicutes belonging to class Clostridia in controls subjects | Not applicable | [44] |
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Metagenomics of T2DM patients before and after bariatric surgery | Surgery improved BMI, hypertension, lipid profile, and glycemic index | Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio increased. Several changes in taxonomy composition | Changes in carbohydrate metabolism and the phosphotransferase system | [59] |
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Antibiotic treatment in high-fat diet-induceddiabetic mice | Antibiotic treatment reduced endotoxemia, glucose intolerance, body weight gain, inflammation, and oxidative stress | Antibiotic treatment changes microbiome architecture of high-fat diet-induced diabetic mice | Drop in endotoxemia, tissue inflammation, and oxidative stress markers | [35] |
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Fecal transplant from healthy mice to T1DM genetically susceptible mice | Prevents autoimmunity, and insulitis and delays T1DM development | Increase in Bacteroidetes and decrease in Firmicutes and Clostridiaceae and Lactobacillaceae abundance | Increase in IgA, TGFβ concentrations, and CD8+, CD103+, and CD8αβ T cells | [60] |
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Antibiotic treatment of biobred diabetes-prone rat | Antibiotic treatment delayed/protected against TIDM | Antibiotic treatment lowered Bacteroides spp. | Antibiotic treatment lowered insulitis | [12] |
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