|
| Biomarkers | Source cell | Description |
|
| Standard biomarkers |
| Creatinine | Muscle cells | Glomerular filtration markers [8] |
Factors affecting creatinine generation
(i) extremes of muscle mass,
(ii) extremes of body size,
(iii) diet and nutritional status: high protein diet and creatine supplements,
(iv) muscle wasting diseases. |
|
| Albuminuria | — | Glomerular damage markers [8] |
| 20–40% of diabetic patients with renal impairment exhibited normal albuminuria [9] |
| No detection in tubulointerstitial injury [9] |
|
| Potential biomarkers |
| Cystatin C | Nucleated cells/proximal tubular cells | Serum cystatin: glomerular filtration markers |
| Urine cystatin: tubular markers |
| Predicted the renal progression of type 2 diabetes [15, 16] |
|
| Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) | Neutrophils/distal tubular cells | Urine NGAL: distal tubular markers |
| Increased in response to tubulointerstitial injury [17, 18] |
| Predicted the renal progression of type 2 diabetes [16, 20] |
|
| Kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) | Proximal tubular cells | Urine KIM-1: proximal tubular markers |
| Increased in response to tubulointerstitial injury [22, 23] |
| Predicted the renal progression of type 2 diabetes [16, 24–26] |
|
| Angiotensinogen | Proximal tubular cells | Urine angiotensinogen: proximal tubular markers |
| Increased in response to renal RAAS activation [27, 29, 30] |
| Predicted the renal progression of type 2 diabetes [16, 28, 31] |
|
| Periostin | Bone/distal tubular cells | Urine periostin: distal tubular markers |
| Increased in response to renal fibrosis and inflammation [33, 34] |
| Predicted the renal progression of type 2 diabetes [36] |
|
| Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) | Macrophages, glomerular and tubular cells | Urine MCP-1: glomerular and tubular markers |
| Increased in response to renal inflammation [39–42] |
| Predicted the albuminuria and renal progression of type 2 diabetes [47] |
|
