How Much Do We Know about the Biopsychosocial Predictors of Glycaemic Control? Age and Clinical Factors Predict Glycaemic Control, but Psychological Factors Do Not

Table 3

Factors associated with poor glycaemic control among the participants.

Variables	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	value	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	value
Age	0.97 (0.95-0.99)	0.002	0.95 (0.91-0.98)	0.002
Gender:
Male	1
Female	0.75 (0.46-1.22)	0.24	—	—
Ethnicity:
Malays	1
Non-Malays	1.13 (0.68-1.89)	0.64	—	—
Marital status:
Married	1
Single/divorce/widow/widower	1.72 (0.98-3.04)	0.59	—	—
Education status:
No education/primary education	1	1
Secondary education	2.33 (1.15-4.72)	0.019	1.73 (0.63-4.79)	0.29
Tertiary education	1.71 (0.84-3.44)	0.14	0.73 (0.24-2.19)	0.57
Employment status:
Employed	1
Unemployed/retired	1.22 (0.70-2.11)	0.48	—	—
Monthly income:
<RM 3,000	1
≥RM 3,000	1.43 (0.85-2.41)	0.18	—	—
Religion:
Islam	1
Other religions	1.03 (0.61-1.74)	0.91	—	—
Self-perceived social support:
Poor	1
Moderate	0 .44 (0.09-2.30)	0.33	—	—
Good	0.50 (0.11-2.36)	0.38	—	—
Cigarette smoking:
Non-smoker	1
Smoker	0.86 (0.30-2.49)	0.78	—	—
Alcohol use:
No	1
Yes	1.21 (0.52-2.82)	0.67	—	—
Recreational drug use:
No	1
Yes	0.56 (0.06-5.06)	0.60	—	—
Types of diabetes mellitus:
Gestational diabetes	1
Type 1 diabetes	2.00 (0.15-26.73)	0.60	—	—
Type 2 diabetes	0.42 (0.05-3.64)	0.43	—	—
Duration of diabetes mellitus	1.05 (1.02-1.08)	0.002	1.11 (1.06-1.16)	<0.001
Frequency of clinic visits	0.95 (0.86-1.05)	0.35	—	—
Comorbid hypertension:
No	1
Yes	0.99 (0.57-1.74)	0.98	—	—
Comorbid hypercholesterolemia:
No	1
Yes	1.03 (0.63-1.67)	0.92	—	—
Comorbid ischaemic heart diseases:
No	1
Yes	1.16 (0.67-1.99)	0.60	—	—
Comorbid cerebrovascular incident:
No	1
Yes	0.95 (0.40-2.25)	0.90	—	—
Comorbid renal diseases:
No	1
Yes	0.87 (0.45-1.68)	0.68	—	—
Number of diabetic medications:
1 type	1	1
2 types	1.73 (0.97-3.10)	0.064	1.10 (0.50-2.43)	0.82
3 types	3.11 (1.32-7.30)	0.009	1.60 (0.55-4.70)	0.39
4 types	5.12 (0.61-42.97)	0.13	0.90 (0.07-10.91)	0.93
Insulin therapy:
Yes	1	1
No	0.32 (0.19-0.55)	<0.001	0.52 (0.24-1.15)	0.11
Number of medications taken daily	1.00 (0.91-1.10)	0.96	—	—
Number of days of missed medication	1.39 (1.11-1.73)	0.004	1.78 (1.21-2.61)	0.003
Number of days of reduced medication intake	1.12 (0.97-1.28)	0.12	—	—
Self-perceived diabetic control:
Poor	1
Moderate	2.68 (0.77-9.38)	0.12	—	—
Good	0.91 (0.30-2.75)	0.86	—	—
Body mass index (BMI)	1.02 (0.96-1.07)	0.58	—	—
Obesity status:
Not obese ()	1
Overweight (-29.9)	1.02 (0.52-2.02)	0.95	—	—
Obese ()	1.48 (0.71-3.09)	0.29	—	—
Anxiety disorders:
No	1
Yes	1.61 (0.62-4.13)	0.32	—	—
Depressive disorders:
No	1
Yes	1.42 (0.74-2.70)	0.29	—	—
Personality traits (BFI):
Extraversion	1.16 (0.72-1.86)	0.55	—	—
Agreeableness	0.90 (0.51-1.60)	0.73	—	—
Conscientiousness	0.94 (0.55-1.59)	0.82	—	—
Neuroticism	1.15 (0.74-1.77)	0.54	—	—
Openness	1.27 (0.78-2.07)	0.35	—	—
Overall perception of QOL	0.60 (0.42-0.86)	0.005	0.37 (0.20-0.67)	0.001
Overall perception of health	0.83 (0.59-1.15)	0.26	—	—
WHOQOL-BREF scores:
Physical health QOL	1.09 (0.99-1.21)	0.082	—	—
Psychological QOL	0.95 (0.84-1.06)	0.35	—	—
Social QOL	0.95 (0.86-1.05)	0.31	—	—
Environmental QOL	0.95 (0.85-1.07)	0.38	—	—

Statistical significance at .