(i) Skills training and education on foot care through group diabetes classes, and provision of foot care kits. (ii) Delivered through hands-on workshops and telephone calls
Routine diabetes care and treatment which consisted of unstructured diabetes education
3 months 24 months
(i) HbA1c improved significantly (% ) = vs. , () (ii) More lower limb amputations were recorded in the control group; (iii) diabetes knowledge improved significantly () = vs 6 (). (iv) Improved foot care behavior () = vs. ()
(i) Family-based self-management social support intervention, providing information on diabetes and complication prevention. (ii) Involved discussions to set diabetes management goals
(i) Family-oriented empowerment diabetes education using face-to-face or telephone call. (ii) It involved collaborative problem solving and discussion with patients
Usual unstructured education and pamphlet
3 months 3 months
(i) Foot care behavior improved significantly for the intervention group () =5 vs , ( (ii) Improved HbA1c (%) = vs ()
(i) Family empowerment educational program to provide basic information on diabetes and foot ulcer care. (ii) Delivered though diabetes lectures and discussions
Nonstructural education from nurses
4 weeks 12 weeks
(i) Improved HbA1c (% ) = vs () (ii) reported clinically significant improvement in wound size = vs ()
(ii) Family-based cultural intervention through group and family sessions to provide information on diabetes self-management (iii) It involved the use of picture illustrations, videotape stories and seminar discussions
10 weeks 4 weeks
(i) Improved HbA1c: Slope , (ii) Improved foot self-care behavior: Slope (95% CI), value = 0.242 (0.125 to 0.358), (iii) Significantly improved diabetes knowledge: slope (95% CI), P value =0.501 (0.389 to 0.614),
(i) Community group diabetes self-management education (DSME) based on the ADA self-care behavior (ii) This program used videotaped stories; assisting to set (i) This program used videotaped stories; assisting to set individual diabetes management goals and group discussions.
(i) Intensive treatment of foot problems, support and education on foot care and foot checks. (ii) The intervention also involved the use of pictures of foot ulcers; provision of customized orthoses for patients and assisting patients to select appropriate footwears
Not stated 18 months
(i) HbA1c improved significantly at follow up () (ii) Wound healing improved significantly = vs. () (iii) Surgical interventions reduced significantly (3) vs. 75 (14), ()
I: intervention group; C: controlled group; SD: standard deviation; RCT: randomized controlled trial; non-RCT: nonrandomized controlled trial; LLA: lower limb amputation; PEDIS: Perfusion, Extent, Depth, Infection and Sensation; MS: mean square between subjects; %: percentage; HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin; vs.: versus; DSME: diabetes self-management education; ADA: American Diabetes Association.