Estimating Typhoid Fever Risk Associated with Lack of Access to Safe Water: A Systematic Literature Review

Table 3

Characteristics of case-control and cohort studies included in the systematic literature review.

Publication year	Study year	Study site	Study setting	Site population	Selected unimproved/unsafe water source	Reasons for typhoid fever	Source
Case control studies
1999	1997	Dushanbe, Tajikistan	Outbreak in endemic area	Urban	Water for home obtained from outside tap [10] (contaminated improved source = unsafe)	Water source contamination; Cessation of chlorination, intermittent water supply creating negative pressure and contaminating water supply with surrounding contaminants.	[11]
2013	2011	Kathmandu, Nepal	Endemic	Urban	Use of stone spout water	Multiple; drinking water spout contamination with sewage, contamination of stored water, general sanitation issues such as lack of toilets or lack of water to flush toilets	[12]
2009	2007	West Bengal, India	Outbreak in endemic area	Urban slum	Drinking piped water [10] (contaminated improved source = unsafe)	Unchlorinated water supply through pipes, drinking water pipes close to open drainage and intermittent water supply	[13]
1992	1990	Neapolitan Area, Italy	Outbreak in endemic area	Urban	Drinking non-potable water	Multiple; foodborne, sanitation, and drinking water source contamination due to sewage exposure to municipal water supply	[14]
2004	2000	Madaya Township, Myanmar	Outbreak in endemic area	Rural	Drinking untreated river water	Drinking water contamination with unchlorinated river water which had direct sewage drainage.	[15]
2005	2002	Son La Province, N. Vietnam	Endemic	Urban	Drinking untreated water	Drinking water contamination and consumption of unchlorinated water (dislike for chlorine smell)	[16]
2005	1996-1997	Dong Thap Province, Mekong Delta, S. Vietnam	Endemic	Urban	Drinking unboiled water	Multiple; drinking river water which had sewage (latrine) drainage, drinking water sources from deep wells and ponds contaminated with drainage from latrines situated in the proximity	[17]
2007	2002-2003	Samarkand Oblast, Uzbekistan	Endemic	Urban and Rural	Consumption of unboiled surface water outside the home	Water source contamination. The drinking of un-boiled surface water outside home during the hot and dry summer months.	[18]
2009	2005-2006	Darjeeling, West Bengal, India	Endemic	Rural	Stream water	Multiple; foodborne, sanitation issues, and drinking water source contamination. Untreated water supply from unprotected springs and natural streams, untreated water supply from venders.	[19]
2007	2003-2004	Dhaka slum, Kamalapur, Bangladesh	Endemic	Urban slum	Drinking unboiled water at home	Multiple; sanitation issues, and drinking water source contamination. Partial chlorination of municipal water supply exposed to contamination, drinking of untreated water	[20]
1998	1994	Karachi, Pakistan	Endemic	Urban	Drinking water at work (improved or unimproved unknown)	Multiple; foodborne, sanitation issues, and drinking water source contamination at workplace	[21]
2001	1992-1994	Samarang, Indonesia	Endemic	Urban	Drinking non-municipal water source	Multiple; foodborne, sanitation issues, and drinking of unchlorinated water from venders	[22]
2005	2001-2003	Diyarbakir, Turkey	Endemic	Urban & rural	Municipality drinking water (contaminated improved water source = unsafe)	Consumption of raw vegetables irrigated with sewage water from the city	[23]
1997	1990-1991	Ujung Pandang, Indonesia	Endemic	Urban	Piped water (contaminated improved water source = unsafe)	Street food consumption	[24]
2004	2001-2003	Jakarta, Indonesia	Endemic	Urban	Piped water (contaminated improved water source == unsafe)	Hygienic practices such as no use of soap for handwashing, sharing of food, and no toilet in the household and household crowding at home	[25]
2008	1999-2001	Karachi, Pakistan	Endemic	Urban	Piped water (contaminated improved water source = unsafe)	Hygienic practices such as lack of soap availability at handwashing place, frequently eating outside home and crowing at home	[26]
Cohort studies
2010	2007	Rajasthan, India	Outbreak in endemic area	Rural	Drinking water from government tank, hand pump and personal tube well	Contaminated sources due to an open well supplying water to all the three water supply facilities	[27]
2000	1998	River Seine, Paris, France	Outbreak	Urban	Drinking untreated river water	Fecal contamination of tap water	[28]
2007	2003 – 2004	Eastern Kolkata, India	Endemic	Urban	Drinking unsafe drinking water	NA	[29]
2012	2003 – 2006	Karachi, Pakistan	Endemic	Urban	Drinking tap water	NA	[30]

NA – Not provided.