|
| Model name | Type | Description | Validated for | Injuries studied | References |
|
| TNO neck | MB | Skull to T1 | Quasistatic facet response | ALL strain effect of posture of CL strain | [26, 85, 86] |
| Vertebrae: rigid, scanned from cadaver | All response |
| Ligaments: piecewise linear springs | Rear impact |
| Discs: 3D point restraint |
| Facets: 1D point restraint |
| Muscle: 68 passive pairs |
|
| HUMOS | FE | Full body 50th percentile male in the seated position | Quasistatic segment response | Vertebral stresses | [87] |
| Approx. 50,000 elements | Frontal, oblique, and lateral impact | Ligament strain |
| Vertebrae: solid elastoplastic |
| Ligaments: 1D nonlinear springs |
| Discs: solid elements, incompressible fluid for nucleus, linear elastic for annulus |
| Facets: two layers of solid elements with springs for CL |
| Muscles: passive, nonlinear springs for elastic properties |
|
| THUMS | FE | Full body 50th percentile male in the seated position | Quasistatic facet response | CL strains and NIC influence of active head restraints | [58] |
| Approx. 80,000 elements | Rear impact |
| Vertebrae: linear elastic solids |
| Ligaments: piecewise linear discrete |
| Facets: no cartilage, shell elements for CL |
| Discs: solid linear elastic |
| Muscles: passive, 1D discrete |
|
| ETH neck | FE | Skull to T1 | Rear impact | Dynamic pressure spikes put the DRG at risk | [88] |
| Vertebrae: rigid |
| Ligaments, facets, and discs modeled |
| Muscles: 1D discrete, active Hill type |
|
