|
Substance | Receptor | Effect on immune response | Reference |
|
Acetylcholine | Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) | Differentiating towards a Th1 phenotype | [111] |
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) | Inhibits IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α production | [109] |
|
ACTH | ACTH receptor | Inhibits IFN-γ production and Ig production and blocks macrophage activation by IFN-γ | [231] |
|
Adrenalin/ noradrenalin | α-Adrenergic receptors | Upregulation of cAMP; inhibits IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α production; enhances IL-10 production | [91] |
β-Adrenergic receptors | Downregulation of cAMP | [93, 94] |
|
Cortisol | Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) | Inhibits IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α Enhances IL-4 and TGF-β production Enhances immune cell expression of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ receptors | [10, 232, 233] |
|
CRH | Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor | Activates macrophages Inhibits IL-1 and IL-6 production | [231] |
|
Dopamine | D1-like receptors | Upregulation of cAMP | [99] |
D2-like receptors | Downregulation of cAMP | [99] |
|
GABA | GABA receptors | Reduces the proliferative response of activated CD8+ T cells Reduces IL-6 release | [169, 170] |
|
Glutamate | mGluR1 | Enhances IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ production | [116] |
mGluR5 | Inhibits IL-6 production | [116] |
|
Growth hormone | Growth hormone receptor | Activates macrophages and enhances H2O2 production | [234] |
|
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone | Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor | Increases IL2R expression, T- and B-cell proliferation, and serum Ig | [235, 236] |
|
Histamine | Histamine 1 receptor, histamine 4 receptor | Enhances IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and RANTES production Induce chemotaxis of CD4+ T cells | [152–154] |
Histamine 2 receptor | Inhibits IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α, and enhances IL-10 production | [155] |
|
Luteinizing hormone | Luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor | Enhances IL-2 stimulated T-cell proliferation | [237] |
|
Melatonin | Melatonin receptor | Enhances IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ production | [238, 239] |
|
Neurokinin A | Neurokinin 2 receptor (NK2-receptor) | Enhances mRNA expression of IFN-α and IFN-β Enhances DC function | [138] |
|
Estrogen | Estrogen receptor | Enhances T-cell proliferation and activity IFN-γ gene promotor | [240] |
|
Progesterone | Progesterone receptor | Enhances IL-4 production and CD30 expression | [85, 86] |
|
Prolactin | Prolactin receptor | Enhances T cell proliferation, IFN-γ, IL-2 receptor expression, and macrophage function | [42, 43] |
|
Serotonin | Serotonin-1a receptor | Enhances NK cell cytotoxicity Downregulation of cAMP Stimulation of T-cell proliferation | [142, 143] |
Serotonin-2a receptor | Inhibits lymphocyte proliferation | [144] |
|
Substance P | Neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1-receptor) | Enhances IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, MIP-1β, and IFN-γ production Enhances T-cell proliferation Enhances NK cell cytotoxicity | [129, 130, 132] |
|
Vasopressin | Vasopressin receptor | Enhances IFN-γ production | [241] |
|
VIP | Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor | Inhibits T-cell proliferation and IL-12 Enhances IL-5 and cAMP production | [242] |
|