Table of Contents Author Guidelines Submit a Manuscript
Table of Contents Alerts

To receive news and publication updates for Journal of Immunology Research, enter your email address in the box below.

Journal of Immunology Research
Volume 2016 (2016), Article ID 7515687, 9 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7515687
Review Article

Defensins: The Case for Their Use against Mycobacterial Infections

Haodi Dong,1 Yue Lv,1 Deming Zhao,1 Paul Barrow,2 and Xiangmei Zhou1

1National Animal Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine and State Key Lab of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
2School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire Le12SRD, UK

Received 4 July 2016; Accepted 30 August 2016

Academic Editor: Margarete D. Bagatini

Copyright © 2016 Haodi Dong et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

  1. E. Dirlikov, M. Raviglione, and F. Scano, “Global tuberculosis control: toward the 2015 targets and beyond,” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 163, no. 1, pp. 52–58, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  2. S. Singh, M. Kumar, and P. Singh, “Evolution of M. bovis BCG vaccine: is niacin production still a valid biomarker?” Tuberculosis Research and Treatment, vol. 2015, Article ID 957519, 11 pages, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  3. C. E. Rivas-Santiago, R. Hernández-Pando, and B. Rivas-Santiago, “Immunotherapy for pulmonary TB: antimicrobial peptides and their inducers,” Immunotherapy, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 1117–1126, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  4. J. L. Flynn and J. Chan, “Immunology of tuberculosis,” Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 19, pp. 93–129, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  5. T. Ganz, “Antimicrobial polypeptides in host defense of the respiratory tract,” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 109, no. 6, pp. 693–697, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  6. B. C. Schutte and P. B. McCray Jr., “β-Defensins in lung host defense,” Annual Review of Physiology, vol. 64, pp. 709–748, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  7. R. Bals, “Epithelial antimicrobial peptides in host defense against infection,” Respiratory Research, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 141–150, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  8. R. I. Lehrer, A. K. Lichtenstein, and T. Ganz, “Defensins: antimicrobial and cytotoxic peptides of mammalian cells,” Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 11, pp. 105–128, 1993. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  9. L. M. Fu, “The potential of human neutrophil peptides in tuberculosis therapy,” International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, vol. 7, no. 11, pp. 1027–1032, 2003. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  10. H. Chen, Z. Xu, L. Peng et al., “Recent advances in the research and development of human defensins,” Peptides, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 931–940, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  11. J. E. Gabay, R. W. Scott, D. Campanelli et al., “Antibiotic proteins of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 86, no. 14, pp. 5610–5614, 1989. View at Google Scholar
  12. B. Ericksen, Z. Wu, W. Lu, and R. I. Lehrer, “Antibacterial activity and specificity of the six human α-defensins,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 269–275, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  13. C. G. Wilde, J. E. Griffith, M. N. Marra, J. L. Snable, and R. W. Scott, “Purification and characterization of human neutrophil peptide 4, a novel member of the defensin family,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 264, no. 19, pp. 11200–11203, 1989. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  14. D. E. Jones and C. L. Bevins, “Defensin-6 mRNA in human Paneth cells: implications for antimicrobia peptides in host defense of the human bowel,” FEBS Letters, vol. 315, no. 2, pp. 187–192, 1993. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  15. E. M. Porter, L. Liu, A. Oren, P. A. Anton, and T. Ganz, “Localization of human intestinal defensin 5 in Paneth cell granules,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 2389–2395, 1997. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  16. K. A. Daher, R. I. Lehrer, T. Ganz, and M. Kronenberg, “Isolation and characterization of human defensin cDNA clones,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 85, no. 19, pp. 7327–7331, 1988. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  17. E. M. Porter, E. Van Dam, E. V. Valore, and T. Ganz, “Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of human intestinal defensin 5,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 2396–2401, 1997. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  18. J. Harder, U. Meyer-Hoffert, L. M. Teran et al., “Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa, TNF-α, and IL-1β, but not IL-6, induce human beta-defensin-2 in respiratory epithelia,” American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 714–721, 2000. View at Google Scholar
  19. P. Méndez-Samperio, E. Miranda, and A. Trejo, “Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) stimulates human β-defensin-2 gene transcription in human epithelial cells,” Cellular Immunology, vol. 239, no. 1, pp. 61–66, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  20. J. Jarczak, E. M. Kościuczuk, P. Lisowski et al., “Defensins: natural component of human innate immunity,” Human Immunology, vol. 74, no. 9, pp. 1069–1079, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  21. X. Yang, Y.-T. Cheng, M.-F. Tan et al., “Overexpression of porcine beta-defensin 2 enhances resistance to Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infection in pigs,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 83, no. 7, pp. 2836–2843, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  22. Y. Yoshimura, “Avian β-defensins expression for the innate immune system in hen reproductive organs,” Poultry Science, vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 804–809, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  23. K. G. Meade, P. Cormican, F. Narciandi, A. Lloyd, and C. O'Farrelly, “Bovine β-defensin gene family: opportunities to improve animal health?” Physiological Genomics, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 17–28, 2014. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  24. E. V. Valore, C. H. Park, A. J. Quayle, K. R. Wiles, P. B. McCray Jr., and T. Ganz, “Human beta-defensin-1: an antimicrobial peptide of urogenital tissues,” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 101, no. 8, pp. 1633–1642, 1998. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  25. M. J. Goldman, G. M. Anderson, E. D. Stolzenberg, U. P. Kari, M. Zasloff, and J. M. Wilson, “Human β-defensin-1 is a salt-sensitive antibiotic in lung that is inactivated in cystic fibrosis,” Cell, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 553–560, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  26. J. Harder, J. Bartels, E. Christophers, and J.-M. Schroder, “A peptide antibiotic from human skin,” Nature, vol. 387, no. 6636, p. 861, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  27. N. A. McNamara, R. Van, O. S. Tuchin, and S. M. J. Fleiszig, “Ocular surface epithelia express mRNA for human beta defensin-2,” Experimental Eye Research, vol. 69, no. 5, pp. 483–490, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  28. Y. Tsutsumi-Ishii and I. Nagaoka, “Modulation of human beta-defensin-2 transcription in pulmonary epithelial cells by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mononuclear phagocytes via proinflammatory cytokine production,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 170, no. 8, pp. 4226–4236, 2003. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  29. J. Harder, J. Bartels, E. Christophers, and J.-M. Schröder, “Isolation and characterization of human β-defensin-3, a novel human inducible peptide antibiotic,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 276, no. 8, pp. 5707–5713, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  30. J. R. García, A. Krause, S. Schulz et al., “Human beta-defensin 4: a novel inducible peptide with a specific salt-sensitive spectrum of antimicrobial activity,” The FASEB Journal, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 1819–1821, 2001. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  31. T. Ganz, “Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 710–720, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  32. T. Ganz and R. I. Lehrer, “Defensins,” Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 191–205, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  33. P. Tongaonkar, K. K. Trinh, J. B. Schaal et al., “Rhesus macaque θ-defensin RTD-1 inhibits proinflammatory cytokine secretion and gene expression by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways,” Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 98, no. 6, pp. 1061–1070, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  34. R. I. Lehrer, A. M. Cole, and M. E. Selsted, “θ-defensins: cyclic peptides with endless potential,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 287, no. 32, pp. 27014–27019, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  35. Y.-Q. Tang, J. Yuan, G. Ösapay et al., “A cyclic antimicrobial peptide produced in primate leukocytes by the ligation of two truncated α-defensins,” Science, vol. 286, no. 5439, pp. 498–502, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  36. A. Menendez and B. Brett Finlay, “Defensins in the immunology of bacterial infections,” Current Opinion in Immunology, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 385–391, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  37. A. C. Conibear and D. J. Craik, “The chemistry and biology of theta defensins,” Angewandte Chemie—International Edition, vol. 53, no. 40, pp. 10613–10623, 2014. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  38. C. Y. Kao, Y. Chen, Y. H. Zhao, and R. Wu, “ORFeome-based search of airway epithelial cell-specific novel human β-defensin genes,” American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 71–80, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  39. E. H. Mattar, H. A. Almehdar, H. A. Yacoub, V. N. Uversky, and E. M. Redwan, “Antimicrobial potentials and structural disorder of human and animal defensins,” Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews, vol. 28, pp. 95–111, 2016. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  40. P. A. Raj and A. R. Dentino, “Current status of defensins and their role in innate and adaptive immunity,” FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol. 206, no. 1, pp. 9–18, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  41. P. Tewary, G. De La Rosa, N. Sharma et al., “β-Defensin 2 and 3 promote the uptake of self or CpG DNA, enhance IFN-α production by human plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and promote inflammation,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 191, no. 2, pp. 865–874, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  42. B. Rivas-Santiago, A. Cervantes-Villagrana, E. Sada, and R. Hernández-Pando, “Expression of beta defensin 2 in experimental pulmonary tuberculosis: tentative approach for vaccine development,” Archives of Medical Research, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 324–328, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  43. Y. V. Chaly, E. M. Paleolog, T. S. Kolesnikova, I. I. Tikhonov, E. V. Petratchenko, and N. N. Voitenok, “Neutrophil alpha-defensin human neutrophil peptide modulates cytokine production in human monocytes and adhesion molecule expression in endothelial cells,” European Cytokine Network, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 257–266, 2000. View at Google Scholar
  44. J. W. Lillard Jr., P. N. Boyaka, O. Chertov, J. J. Oppenheim, and J. R. Mcghee, “Mechanisms for induction of acquired host immunity by neutrophil peptide defensins,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 96, no. 2, pp. 651–656, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  45. Z. Zhao, Z. L. Mu, X. W. Liu et al., “Expressions of antimicrobial peptides LL-37, human β defensin-2 and -3 in the lesions of cutaneous tuberculosis and tuberculids,” Chinese Medical Journal, vol. 129, no. 6, pp. 696–701, 2016. View at Google Scholar
  46. A. Pivarcsi, I. Nagy, A. Koreck et al., “Microbial compounds induce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and human β-defensin-2 in vaginal epithelial cells,” Microbes and Infection, vol. 7, no. 9-10, pp. 1117–1127, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  47. K. S. Kobayashi, M. Chamaillard, Y. Ogura et al., “Nod2-dependent regulation of innate and adaptive immunity in the intestinal tract,” Science, vol. 307, no. 5710, pp. 731–734, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  48. J. I. Castañeda-Sánchez, B. E. García-Pérez, A. R. Muñoz-Duarte et al., “Defensin production by human limbo-corneal fibroblasts infected with mycobacteria,” Pathogens, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 13–32, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  49. R. H. van den Berg, M. C. Faber-Krol, S. van Wetering, P. S. Hiemstra, and M. R. Daha, “Inhibition of activation of the classical pathway of complement by human neutrophil defensins,” Blood, vol. 92, no. 10, pp. 3898–3903, 1998. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  50. A. A.-R. Higazi, I. I. Barghouti, and R. Abu-Much, “Identification of an inhibitor of tissue-type plasminogen activator-mediated fibrinolysis in human neutrophils. A role for defensin,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 270, no. 16, pp. 9472–9477, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  51. E. E. Fomicheva, I. Iu. Pivanovich, O. V. Shamova, and E. A. Nemirovich-Danchenko, “Glucocorticoid hormones in immunomodulating effect of defensins,” Rossiiskii Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal Imeni I.M. Sechenova, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 496–502, 2002. View at Google Scholar
  52. S. Sharma, I. Verma, and G. K. Khuller, “Biochemical interaction of human neutrophil peptide-1 with Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra,” Archives of Microbiology, vol. 171, no. 5, pp. 338–342, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  53. W. Wang, A. M. Cole, T. Hong, A. J. Waring, and R. I. Lehrer, “Retrocyclin, an antiretroviral theta-defensin, is a lectin,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 170, no. 9, pp. 4708–4716, 2003. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  54. S. Sharma and G. Khuller, “DNA as the intracellular secondary target for antibacterial action of human neutrophil peptide-I against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra,” Current Microbiology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 74–76, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  55. J. F. Gera and A. Lichtenstein, “Human neutrophil peptide defensins induce single strand DNA breaks in target cells,” Cellular Immunology, vol. 138, no. 1, pp. 108–120, 1991. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  56. M. T. Silva, M. N. Silva, and R. Appelberg, “Neutrophil-macrophage cooperation in the host defence against mycobacterial infections,” Microbial Pathogenesis, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 369–380, 1989. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  57. A. Peschel, R. W. Jack, M. Otto et al., “Staphylococcus aureus resistance to human defensins and evasion of neutrophil killing via the novel virulence factor MprF is based on modification of membrane lipids with l-lysine,” The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 193, no. 9, pp. 1067–1076, 2001. View at Google Scholar
  58. S. I. Miller, W. S. Pulkkinen, M. E. Selsted, and J. J. Mekalanos, “Characterization of defensin resistance phenotypes associated with mutations in the phoP virulence regulon of Salmonella typhimurium,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 58, no. 11, pp. 3706–3710, 1990. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  59. M. E. Selsted, D. Szklarek, and R. I. Lehrer, “Purification and antibacterial activity of antimicrobial peptides of rabbit granulocytes,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 150–154, 1984. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  60. S. Sharma, I. Verma, and G. K. Khuller, “Antibacterial activity of human neutrophil peptide-1 against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv: in vitro and ex vivo study,” European Respiratory Journal, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 112–117, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  61. A. K. Lichtenstein, T. Ganz, T.-M. Nguyen, M. E. Selsted, and R. I. Lehrer, “Mechanism of target cytolysis by peptide defensins. Target cell metabolic activities, possibly involving endocytosis, are crucial for expression of cytotoxicity,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 140, no. 8, pp. 2686–2694, 1988. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  62. A. Lichtenstein, “Mechanism of mammalian cell lysis mediated by peptide defensins. Evidence for an initial alteration of the plasma membrane,” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 93–100, 1991. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  63. S. van Watering, P. J. Sterk, K. F. Rabe, and P. S. Hiemstra, “Defensins: key players or bystanders in infection, injury, and repair in the lung?” Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol. 104, no. 6, pp. 1131–1138, 1999. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  64. A. Lichtenstein, T. Ganz, M. E. Selsted, and R. I. Lehrer, “In vitro tumor cell cytolysis mediated by peptide defensins of human and rabbit granulocytes,” Blood, vol. 68, no. 6, pp. 1407–1410, 1986. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  65. A. K. Lichtenstein, T. Ganz, M. E. Selsted, and R. I. Lehrer, “Synergistic cytolysis mediated by hydrogen peroxide combined with peptide defensins,” Cellular Immunology, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 104–116, 1988. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  66. J.-I. Ashitani, H. Mukae, T. Hiratsuka, M. Nakazato, K. Kumamoto, and S. Matsukura, “Plasma and BAL fluid concentrations of antimicrobial peptides in patients with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection,” Chest, vol. 119, no. 4, pp. 1131–1137, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  67. M. Jacobsen, D. Repsilber, A. Gutschmidt et al., “Candidate biomarkers for discrimination between infection and disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” Journal of Molecular Medicine, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 613–621, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  68. S. Sharma, I. Verma, and G. K. Khuller, “Therapeutic potential of human neutrophil peptide 1 against experimental tuberculosis,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 639–640, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  69. K. Ogata, B. A. Linzer, R. I. Zuberi, T. Ganz, R. I. Lehrer, and A. Catanzaro, “Activity of defensins from human neutrophilic granulocytes against Mycobacterium avium-Mycobacterium intracellulare,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 60, no. 11, pp. 4720–4725, 1992. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  70. Y. Miyakawa, P. Ratnakar, A. G. Rao et al., “In vitro activity of the antimicrobial peptides human and rabbit defensins and porcine leukocyte protegrin against Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 926–932, 1996. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  71. B. Mathew and R. Nagaraj, “Antimicrobial activity of human α-defensin 5 and its linear analogs: N-terminal fatty acylation results in enhanced antimicrobial activity of the linear analogs,” Peptides, vol. 71, pp. 128–140, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  72. J. Kang, D. Zhao, Y. Lyu et al., “Antimycobacterial activity of Pichia pastoris-derived mature bovine neutrophil β-defensins 5,” European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 1823–1834, 2014. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  73. J.-J. Kang, Y. Lyu, D.-M. Zhao et al., “Antimicrobial activity of recombinant mature bovine neutrophil β-defensin 4 on mycobacterial infection,” International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 711–716, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  74. K. O. Kisich, M. Higgins, G. Diamond, and L. Heifets, “Tumor necrosis factor alpha stimulates killing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by human neutrophils,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 70, no. 8, pp. 4591–4599, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  75. O. Froy, “Regulation of mammalian defensin expression by Toll-like receptor-dependent and independent signalling pathways,” Cellular Microbiology, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 1387–1397, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  76. P. Méndez-Samperio, “Role of antimicrobial peptides in host defense against mycobacterial infections,” Peptides, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1836–1841, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  77. K. O. Kisich, L. Heifets, M. Higgins, and G. Diamond, “Antimycobacterial agent based on mRNA encoding human β-defensin 2 enables primary macrophages to restrict growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 2692–2699, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  78. L. Corrales-Garcia, E. Ortiz, J. Castañeda-Delgado, B. Rivas-Santiago, and G. Corzo, “Bacterial expression and antibiotic activities of recombinant variants of human β-defensins on pathogenic bacteria and M. tuberculosis,” Protein Expression and Purification, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 33–43, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  79. L. Fattorini, R. Gennaro, M. Zanetti et al., “In vitro activity of protegrin-1 and beta-defensin-1, alone and in combination with isoniazid, against Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” Peptides, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 1075–1077, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  80. B. E. García-Pérez, D. A. Villagómez-Palatto, J. I. Castañeda-Sánchez et al., “Innate response of human endothelial cells infected with mycobacteria,” Immunobiology, vol. 216, no. 8, pp. 925–935, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  81. P. T. Liu, M. Schenk, V. P. Walker et al., “Convergence of IL-1β and VDR activation pathways in human TLR2/1-induced antimicrobial responses,” PLoS ONE, vol. 4, no. 6, Article ID e5810, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  82. C. E. Rivas-Santiago, B. Rivas-Santiago, D. A. León, J. Castañeda-Delgado, and R. Hernández Pando, “Induction of β-defensins by l-isoleucine as novel immunotherapy in experimental murine tuberculosis,” Clinical and Experimental Immunology, vol. 164, no. 1, pp. 80–89, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  83. D. A. León, M. J. Zumárraga, R. J. Oropeza et al., “Mycobacterium bovis with different genotypes and from different hosts induce dissimilar immunopathological lesions in a mouse model of tuberculosis,” Clinical & Experimental Immunology, vol. 157, no. 1, pp. 139–147, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  84. B. Rivas-Santiago, E. Sada, V. Tsutsumi et al., “β-defensin gene expression during the course of experimental tuberculosis infection,” The Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 194, no. 5, pp. 697–701, 2006. View at Google Scholar
  85. A. R. Cervantes-Villagrana, R. Hernández-Pando, A. Biragyn et al., “Prime-boost BCG vaccination with DNA vaccines based in β-defensin-2 and mycobacterial antigens ESAT6 or Ag85B improve protection in a tuberculosis experimental model,” Vaccine, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 676–684, 2013. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  86. O. Chertov, D. F. Michiel, L. Xu et al., “Identification of defensin-1, defensin-2, and CAP37/azurocidin as T-cell chemoattractant proteins released from interleukin-8-stimulated neutrophils,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 271, no. 6, pp. 2935–2940, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  87. M. C. Territo, T. Ganz, M. E. Selsted, and R. Lehrer, “Monocyte-chemotactic activity of defensins from human neutrophils,” The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 84, no. 6, pp. 2017–2020, 1989. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  88. A. Kalita, I. Verma, and G. K. Khuller, “Role of human neutrophil peptide-1 as a possible adjunct to antituberculosis chemotherapy,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 190, no. 8, pp. 1476–1480, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  89. V. Driss, F. Legrand, E. Hermann et al., “TLR2-dependent eosinophil interactions with mycobacteria: role of α-defensins,” Blood, vol. 113, no. 14, pp. 3235–3244, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  90. P. Méndez-Samperio, L. Alba, and A. Trejo, “Mycobacterium bovis-mediated induction of human β-defensin-2 in epithelial cells is controlled by intracellular calcium and p38MAPK,” Journal of Infection, vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 469–474, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  91. B.-D. Zhu, Y. Feng, N. Huang, Q. Wu, and B.-Y. Wang, “Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) enhances human β-defensin-1 gene transcription in human pulmonary gland epithelial cells,” Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 907–950, 2003. View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  92. M. Henao-Tamayo, C. A. Shanley, D. Verma et al., “The efficacy of the BCG vaccine against newly emerging clinical strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” PLoS ONE, vol. 10, no. 9, Article ID e0136500, 2015. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  93. D. Tran, P. A. Tran, Y. Q. Tang, J. Yuan, T. Cole, and M. E. Selsted, “Homodimeric theta-defensins from rhesus macaque leukocytes: isolation, synthesis, antimicrobial activities, and bacterial binding properties of the cyclic peptides,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 277, no. 5, pp. 3079–3084, 2002. View at Google Scholar
  94. B. Yasin, W. Wang, M. Pang et al., “θ Defensins protect cells from infection by herpes simplex virus by inhibiting viral adhesion and entry,” Journal of Virology, vol. 78, no. 10, pp. 5147–5156, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  95. I. Gonzalez-Curiel, V. Trujillo, A. Montoya-Rosales et al., “1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces LL-37 and HBD-2 production in keratinocytes from diabetic foot ulcers promoting wound healing: an in vitro model,” PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 10, Article ID e111355, 2014. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus