Viral Modulation of TLRs and Cytokines and the Related Immunotherapies for HPV-Associated Cancers

Table 3

Some proinflammatory cytokines in HPV-related carcinogenesis.

Cytokine	Action mechanism
IL-8	(i) It induces neutrophil chemoattraction and cell survival [18]; (ii) It stimulates cell growth and cancer metastasis [89]; (iii) Prognosis of patients with high levels of IL-8 is extremely poor [48] and its expression was associated with lesion severity [90]
IL-17	(i) It is associated with lymphatic metastasis [91]; (ii) It is found in high levels in patients with cervical cancer [91]; (iii) It is also linked to the antitumor response [92], when it supports the recruitment and activation of neutrophils, the maturation of DC/priming of T cells, and the synthesis of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 [74, 75, 93]
IL-23	(i) It is synthesized by activated APCs [94]; (ii) It induces macrophage secretion of TNF-α, DC production of IL-12, and the synthesis of IL-17 [95]; (iii) It induces upregulation of MMP9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9), tumor angiogenesis, and TAM activity and prevents T CD8^+ cell infiltration [95]; (iv) As well as IL-17, shows antitumor activities through its immune surveillance properties, such as the promotion of CTL and NK cell, the IFN-γ secretion, and the stimulation of the IL-12-induced Th1 response [95]