Elucidating the Pivotal Immunomodulatory and Anti-Inflammatory Potentials of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine

Table 1

Shows the explicit effect of CQ or HCQ on various immune/inflammatory factors.

Immune/inflammatory factors	Type	Effect of CQ/HCQ	Citation
Toll-like receptors (TLRs)	TLR-3	Inhibition	[20, 21, 44]
	TLR-7	Inhibition	[20, 21, 42–44]
	TLR-8	Inhibition	[20, 21, 42–44]
	TLR-9	Inhibition	[20, 21, 44]
Interferons (IFNs)	IFN-α	Inhibition	[50, 57–59]
	IFN-β	Inconclusive	No data
	IFN-γ	Inhibition	[50, 57–59]
Interleukins	IL-1	Inhibition	[30, 61–63]
	IL-2	Inhibition	[30, 61, 65, 67, 68]
	IL-6	Inhibition	[16, 23, 30, 33, 58, 61, 70–72]
	IL-10	Facilitator	[1, 81]
	IL-17	Inhibition	[30, 57, 61]
	IL-22	Inhibition	[30, 57, 61]
T-cells	Th1	Stability	[1, 81]
	Th2	Stability	[1, 81]
	Th17	Inconclusive	No data
	CD4^+	Inconclusive	[20, 82–85]
B-cells	All B-cell subsets	Inhibition	[17, 93–95]
Prostaglandins (PGs)	PGs	Inhibition	[98, 99]
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)	TNF-α	Inhibition	[16, 23, 30, 58, 71, 72, 109]
Extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)	1/2	Inhibition	[23, 30, 110, 116]
Chemokines	CXCL8	Facilitator	[1]
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)	—	Facilitator	[1, 29]
Glucose	—	Facilitator	[36, 131, 132, 134, 136, 137]