The Role of MicroRNAs in Regulating Cytokines and Growth Factors in Coronary Artery Disease: The Ins and Outs

Figure 1

The interplay between miRNAs and cytokines involved in CAD. Cytokines can alter the expression of miRNAs through the induction of miRNA transcription factors such as CREB or activating signaling pathways such as STAT5 and NF-κB. Conversely, miRNAs change the production, stability, and release of cytokine via direct targeting of 3UTR region of cytokine or cytokine receptors, affecting ARE-BPs, CDKN1A/p21, BCL2L11/Bim, IRS-1, and mTOR mediators, and activating or blocking signaling pathways such as IKKβ/NF-κB, IRRB2/PPE4/NF-κB, TLR4, and HIF-1a. An indirect effect of miRNA on cytokines is mediated by blocking thromboxane A2 receptors of EPCs which inhibits cytokine signaling. CREB: cAMP-response element-binding protein; ARE-BPs: binding proteins containing adenine and uridine elements; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; IKKβ: IκB kinase β; IRS-1: insulin receptor substrate 1; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin.