Pharmacological Actions, Molecular Mechanisms, Pharmacokinetic Progressions, and Clinical Applications of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A in Antidiabetic Research

Figure 2

The molecular mechanisms of hydroxysafflor yellow A in the treatment of inflammation-related diseases. Abbreviations: GSK3β: glycogen synthase kinase-3β; NF-κB: nuclear factor-κB; TLR9: toll-like receptor 9; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; TLR2: toll-like receptor 2; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; JAK2: Janus kinase 2; STAT3: signal transducers and activators of transcription 3; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Akt: protein kinase B; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; cAMP: cyclic adenosine monophosphate; PKA: protein kinase A; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α.