| Kidney diseases | Related mechanism | Conclusions | References | |
| LN | Molecular mimicry | In susceptible individuals, symbiotic bacterial antigens cross-react with human DNA to activate the immune system and destroy self-tolerance, which is positively correlated with SLE activity and LN. | [70, 71] | Treg/Th17 imbalance | Treg/Th17 imbalance can trigger immune responses and promote the production of SLE autoantibodies. | [40, 42] | ↑TLR7 and TLR9 | An increase of TLR7 and TLR9 can contribute to alterations of proinflammatory cytokines in lupus patients. | [64, 65] | Antinuclear antibodies | Mice with reduced gut bacteria developed nephritis more slowly and had lower levels of circulating antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) compared to the control group. | [67, 69] | Germ-free lymphotoxin-deficient animals monocolonized with SFB produced more ANAs than lymphotoxin-deficient controls monocolonized with E. coli. | [68] |
| CKD | Endoxin | Endotoxemia can lead to systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, cardiac injury, and atherosclerosis. | [52] | Uremic toxins (TMAO, IS, and PCS) | Uremic toxins cause inflammation and tubulointerstitial damage and promote ROS production, tubulointerstitial damage, epithelial cytotoxicity of proximal renal tubules, and progressive podocyte and glomerular damage. | [51, 96, 97] | SCFAs | Gut-derived SCFAs trigger hypertension through Olfr78 in the peripheral blood vessels and renal afferent arterioles, which in turn leads to renin secretion and regulation of peripheral resistance. | [23, 84, 101] |
| DN | Insulin resistance | Intestinal dysbiosis is involved in insulin resistance and apoptosis of islet cells in diabetes. | [7, 10, 11, 116, 118] | Activation of the RAS | Ang II accelerates the progression of DN by inducing renal vasoconstriction, promoting renal cell morphology, extracellular matrix deposition, inflammatory cytokine secretion, and fibro-promoting chemokines. | [125, 126] | Uremic toxin | Phenyl sulfate can cause proteinuria and podocyte injury in diabetic mice. Inhibition of phenyl sulfate can reduce proteinuria in diabetic mice. | [122] |
| IRI | Bone marrow monocytes and renal resident macrophages | Applying antibiotics can diminish the gut microbiome and protect against kidney IRI profoundly by reducing the maturation status of bone marrow monocytes and F4/80+ renal resident macrophages. | [138] |
| IgAN | TGF-β, BAFF, and APRIL | Intestinal dysbiosis and chronic bacterial infections could stimulate epithelial cells to produce BAFF and APRIL which could promote excessive production of IgA. | [140, 144–147] | Endoxin (LPS) | LPS is involved in the presence of important features of IgAN pathogenesis: hyperproduction and hypogalactosylation of IgA1. | [151] |
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