WO<sub>3</sub> Nanowires on Graphene Sheets as Negative Electrode for Supercapacitors

Liu, Bo; Wang, Yan; Jiang, Hong-Wu; Zou, Ben-Xue

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2494109

Journal of Nanomaterials

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Abstract Introduction Results and Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Nanomaterials for Efficient Energy Conversion and Storage

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Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2017 | Article ID 2494109 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2494109

WO₃ Nanowires on Graphene Sheets as Negative Electrode for Supercapacitors

Bo Liu,¹Yan Wang,¹Hong-Wu Jiang,¹and Ben-Xue Zou¹

Academic Editor: Jianlin Li

Received12 Dec 2016

Accepted16 Jan 2017

Published20 Feb 2017

Abstract

WO₃ nanowires directly grown on graphene sheets have been fabricated by using a seed-mediated hydrothermal method. The morphologies and electrochemical performance of WO₃ films prepared by different process were studied. The results show that the precoated nanoseeds and graphene sheets on graphite electrode provide more reactive centers for the nucleation and formation of uniform WO₃ nanowires. The WO₃ nanowires electrode exhibits a high area specific capacitance of 800 mF cm⁻² over negative potential range from −1.0 V to 0 V versus SCE in 1 M Li₂SO₄ solution. A high performance electrochemical supercapacitor assembled with WO₃ nanowires as negative electrode and PANI/MnO₂ as positive electrodes over voltage range of 1.6 V displays a high volumetric capacitance of 2.5 F cm⁻³, which indicate great potential applications of WO₃ nanowires on graphene sheets as negative electrode for energy storage devices.

1. Introduction

Nanostructured tungsten oxide materials have received increasing attention due to their great potential applications in gas sensors, photocatalysts, field-emission devices, and electrochromic and energy storage devices [1–6]. Nanostructured tungsten oxides as electrode materials are expected to display enhanced electrochemical performance because of their large surface area and low charge transport resistance. Among the various nanostructures, one-dimensional (1D) structures such as nanowires and nanotubes are especially attractive for dimensionality and size which have been regarded as significant factors that may bring novel and excellent properties [7–14].

A wide variety of synthesis methods, including physical or chemical vapor deposition and wet-chemical process, have been used to produce 1D WO_x. Shingaya and coworkers fabricated 1D WO_x by heating of W or WO_x powders at high temperature in the presence of oxygen to form WO_x vapors that condense onto a colder substrate [15]. Rao and Zheng presented flame synthesis of tungsten oxide nanostructures on a variety of substrates using a coflow multielement diffusion burner [16]. The nanostructured WO_x film can be directly grown on substrate by vapor deposition, but high cost, high temperature, and various synthesis parameters to control limit the widespread of this method to large-scale applications. Wet-chemical process is regarded as a simple and low cost method to prepare WO_x nanostructures. Polleux and coworkers represented template-frees synthesis method to produce outstanding aspect ratio of WO₃ nanowires with tungsten isopropoxide and benzyl alcohol as raw materials [17]. The film assembled by drop-coating and followed by calcination at 500°C in air to remove organic compound exhibited high sensibility to low NO₂ concentrations. Wang et al. synthesized WO₃ nanorods by a facile hydrothermal process and constructed transparent film by drop-coating on ITO glass for electrochromic applications [18].

WO₃ is also considered to be an attractive electrode material for energy storage devices due to intercalation/deintercalation of electrons and protons or Li⁺ into the oxide [19–22]. But low conductivity and poor rate performance of tungsten oxide limit its wide application for pseudocapacitors. One way to improve the performance of tungsten oxide is to combine WO₃ with other conductive materials such as conducting polymers, carbon fibers and reduced graphene oxide [23–25]. However, much work has been focused on WO₃ electrode as positive electrode, but little has been reported for WO₃ as negative electrode for supercapacitors [26, 27]. Moreover, ordered nanostructures grown directly on the electrode substrate without the need for polymer binders is particularly important, because most polymer binders are electrochemically inactive for charge storage. In this work, we present a simple and convenient method to fabricate tungsten oxide nanowires directly grown on graphene sheets by simple seed-mediated hydrothermal method. Morphologies and microstructures of the samples were investigated by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), while cyclic voltammetry (CV), chronopotentiometry (CP), and AC impedance were carried out to study capacitive properties of the films. A comparative analysis of different preparation process on the morphologies and performance of the films was studied.

2. Experimental Section

2.1. Preparation of Tungsten Oxide Nanowires on Graphene Sheets

The preparation of graphene sheets partially exfoliated from graphite foil was according to our previous work [28]. Graphite foil was purchased from SGL (Germany). Tungsten oxide nanowires on graphene sheets were synthesized by using a seed-mediated hydrothermal method. The partially exfoliated graphite foil (Ex-GF) was firstly dipped into H₂WO₄ suspension (pH = 1), followed by annealing at 250°C on a hot-plate for 10 min. The H₂WO₄ suspension was prepared by adding 0.6 g Na₂WO₄, 5 mL distilled water, and a certain amount of 3 M HCl to adjust pH value of 1. The dip-coating and drying processes were repeated for 3 times. The obtained seeded substrate was then transferred into a Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave with hydrothermal reaction solution. The graphite foil was placed against the inner wall of the autoclave with the seeded face downward. The solution used for hydrothermal reaction contained 0.6 g sodium tungstate (Na₂WO₄), 0.29 g NaCl, 15 mL distilled water, and an amount of HCl to adjust the pH value of the solution to 2.5. Then the autoclave was sealed and maintained at 180°C for 24 h in an oven. After hydrothermal reaction, the graphite foil was removed from the vessel and washed thoroughly with distilled water and then dried at 50°C for 6 h. The graphite foil was covered with a uniform film. The obtained sample was denoted as NW/Ex-GF (or NW).

To improve the stability of the sample, the as-synthesized film on graphite foil was then treated by charge/discharge process with a potential range of −1.0~0 V in 1 M Li₂SO₄ electrolyte at 1 mA cm⁻² for 5 cycles, followed by washing with distilled water and annealing at 350°C for 1 h in N₂ atmosphere. The obtained sample after posttreatment is denoted as ANW/Ex-GF (or ANW). To study the influence of the preparation process on the morphologies and properties of the films, other three different WO_x films were prepared. The WO_x film prepared by hydrothermal process without precoating nanoseeds on graphene sheets was denoted as NW with no seeding. The WO_x film prepared without exfoliating graphite foil was denoted as NW with no graphene sheets, and the film prepared without adding NaCl in the deposition solution was denoted as NW with no NaCl, respectively. The other condition was kept same as NW and those samples were not posttreated.

2.2. Preparation of PANI/MnO₂ for Positive Electrode

Hybrid film of PANI/MnO₂ was electrochemical deposited on graphene sheets partially exfoliated from graphite foil through 20 cyclic voltammetric scans from −0.2 to 1.0 V (versus SCE) at 10 mV s⁻¹ from solutions of 0.1 M aniline containing 160 mM MnSO₄ and 1 M H₂SO₄. The obtained sample PANI/MnO₂ on graphite foil is denoted as PM electrode.

2.3. Fabrication of Asymmetric Supercapacitor Devices

Asymmetric supercapacitors were assembled by using PM as the positive and ANW as the negative electrode and Li₂SO₄/PVA gel as the electrolyte as well as separator, similar to our previously reported supercapacitors assembled by gel electrolyte [29]. The working area of two electrodes was 1.0 × 1.0 cm².

2.4. Characterization

The morphologies of the samples were investigated by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Carl Zeiss, Germany) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL, Japan). X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded on an X-ray diffractometer (PW3040/60, PANalytical B.V., Netherlands) employing monochromatized Cu Kα incident radiation. XPS spectra were recorded on Thermo ECSALAB 250 electron spectrometer using Al Kα radiation (1486.6 eV). Electrochemical experiments were conducted with a CHI660e potentiostat in a three-electrode electrolytic cell. The reference and counter electrodes were saturated calomel electrode (SCE) and platinum wire, respectively. Pseudocapacitive behaviors of the films were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and chronopotentiometry (CP) in 1 M Li₂SO₄ electrolyte. EIS spectra were measured on CHI660e potentiostat with electrochemical impedance software Power Sine. The potential amplitude of AC was kept at 5 mV, while the electrode was subjected to applied DC potentials of −0.5 V for EIS measurements in a frequency range of 100 kHz–10 mHz. A Luggin capillary was used to minimize errors due to iR drop of the electrolyte. The electrochemical performance of asymmetric supercapacitor assembled with two electrodes was investigated by cyclic voltammetry and chronopotentiometry techniques with Li₂SO₄/PVA gel as electrolyte and separator.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization

XRD measurements are conducted on as-prepared film grown on partially exfoliated graphite. The XRD patterns of the film showed characteristic diffraction peaks of Hexagonal WO₃ (JCPDS number 85-2460) in Figure 1(a). Hexagonal structure of WO₃ has been reported to be attractive structures as an intercalation host for obtaining tungsten bronzes M_xWO₃ (M = H⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺) because of its special tunnel structure [10]. This tunnel structure may provide a smooth pathway for the movement of charges within WO₃ electrode, giving rise to the charge storage capability for WO₃ electrode material. On the other hand, crystalline WO₃ is much more stable than amorphous WO₃ due to the denser structure and lower dissolution rate in electrolytes, which is very important issue in terms of practical applications [28]. The sharp reflection peaks on XRD patterns indicate good crystallization and purity by seeded-induced hydrothermal reaction.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Surface morphologies of the films were investigated by SEM. As shown in Figure 1(b), uniform nanowires are clearly observed on the rough wrinkled electrode surface. These wrinkles are termed as thin graphene multilayers which are derived from electrochemically partial exfoliation [30]. From Figure 1(b), it can be seen that the exposed graphene edge planes stand on the surface with the thickness of several nanometers, which will provide more reactive surface centers and benefit electrochemical reactions. The average diameter of WO₃ nanowires is about 10~20 nm and length is about 0.5~1 μm, corresponding to the aspect ratios of ~50. The nanowires connect each other to form micropore and macropore structures. This one-dimensional porous structure with high specific area may provide more opportunity for the reactive centers on the film to contact with electrolyte and facilitate the charge transfer in the bulk of the film. The nanowires microstructure of WO₃ is further investigated by TEM. Figure 1(c) shows WO₃ nanowires randomly scattered on very thin transparent layers of graphene sheets with thickness about several nanometers. The high resolution of TEM image in Figure 1(d) shows lattice fringes characteristic of crystalline materials.

XPS is employed to characterize the surface chemical compositions and valence state of samples. The XPS core level spectra of W4f and survey spectrum of the sample surface are shown in Figure 2. In the spectrum of W 4f (Figure 2(a)), the peaks appearing at 35.7 and 37.9 eV can be assigned to W 4f_7/2 and W 4f_5/2 for W⁺⁶ oxidation state. The survey spectrum of as-prepared nanowires WO₃ reveals signals from W and O elements, indicating the composition of nanowire is WO₃ species. Otherwise, a large amount of Na and Cl elements are clearly observed in WO₃, which comes from the precursor NaCl salt, suggesting that NaCl salt is more likely to be involved in WO₃ crystal growth process. NaCl acts as capping agent and selectively absorbed onto the crystal planes parallel to the -axes of WO₃ crystal nucleus, resulting in the formation of uniform WO₃ nanowires, which is similar to the growth mechanism of WO₃ nanorods prepared by hydrothermal method without using seed-induced method [18]. It is worth noted that Na⁺ and Cl⁻ can be easily deintercalated from WO₃ crystals during charge/discharge process in Li₂SO₄ electrolyte as there is little Cl or Na element observed in the spectrum of WO₃ after posttreatment (ANW) in Figure 2(b).

(a)

(b)

3.2. Capacitive Performance of WO₃ Nanowires on Graphene Sheets

Figure 3(a) presents cyclic voltammograms of WO₃ nanowires (ANW) with potential range from −1.0 to 0 V in 1 M Li₂SO₄ aqueous solution. The distorted rectangular shapes between 10 and 50 mV s⁻¹ reveal characteristic pseudocapacitive behavior based on the faradic redox reaction. The ANW film displayed electroactivity in the negative potential range because of Li⁺ and electrons insertion/extraction into/out of WO₃ structures to form blue tungsten bronzes (Li_xWO₃). The reduction and oxidation process can be represented by the following equation [27, 31]: The apparent distortion at a higher scan rate is responsible for the electric polarization and irreversible reactions for WO₃ crystals film.

(a)

(b)

Constant current charge/discharge experiments were conducted on ANW film by chronopotentiometry at various current densities, as shown in Figure 3(b). The charge/discharge curves show ideal linear profiles and nearly symmetric in negative potential range. This indicates that the as-obtained WO₃ electrodes have good capacitive performance used as negative electrode. From the CV and CP profiles, the irreversibility and hysteresis phenomena are observed between anodic and cathodic scan profiles. It can be ascribed that the charge/discharge process is not completely reversible and the reduction form of tungsten bronzes of Li_xWO₃ is not completely oxidized to WO₃ during the anodic sweeps, leading to the coulombic efficiency () lower than 1, which is 70%, 74%, 90%, and 98% at 1, 2.5, 5, and 7.5 mA cm⁻², respectively, calculated from (1): , where and are discharging and charging times.

The area specific capacitance is calculated to be 800 mF cm⁻² at a current density of 1 mA cm⁻², based on the equation: , where (mF cm⁻²) is the area specific capacitance, and are the charge/discharge current density and time, respectively, is the potential window, and is the projected area of the electrode. This remarkable area capacitance is comparable to those negative electrodes reported previously, such as WO₃@PPy (253 mF cm⁻²) and PEDOT/SDS-GO composite (79.6 mF cm⁻²) [26, 32]. The capacitance retained about 98.8%, 81.6% and 66.7% of its initial value at 1 mA cm⁻² when charged/discharged at 2.5, 5, and 7.5 mA cm⁻², respectively, showing that the ANW electrode has good rate capability. For comparison, the galvanostatic charge/discharge profiles of WO₃ electrode before treatment (NW) were also collected at various current densities. As shown in Figure 4(a), the CP profiles of NW electrode exhibit the same profiles, but larger drop than that of ANW electrode is observed, especially at a higher current density. The area specific capacitance of NW has the capacitance value of 850 mF cm⁻². But the capacitance retained about 73.4%, 61.0%, and 46.9% of its initial value at 1 mA cm⁻² when charged/discharged at 2.5, 5, and 7.5 mA cm⁻², respectively. The larger and poorer rate capability of NW indicate the conductivity of the electrode can be improved by posttreatment. It seems reasonable that some WO₃ on the electrode has been transformed irreversibly into higher conductivity of tungsten bronzes (Li_xWO_y) after charge/discharge process in Li₂SO₄ followed by annealing at N₂ atmosphere.

(a)

(b)

Electrochemical impedance characteristics of the NW and ANW film were investigated at applied dc potentials of −0.5 V in 1 M Li₂SO₄. The Nyquist plots in the range of 100 kHz to 10 mHz are shown in Figure 4(b). There is a semicircle impedance arc in the high frequency region and a linear response in the low frequency region on the curve. This semicircle is attributed to the process at the electrode-electrolyte interface, which is expected to be the capacitance () in parallel with the charge-transfer resistance () due to the charge exchange at the interface. A slope of steep line arising in the low frequency region on the curves accounts for a more faradic capacitive behavior of the electrode. The equivalent series resistance obtained from diameter of Nyquist plot for ANW is much smaller than that of NW, suggesting that the ANW has a lower resistance for the charge exchange, which is in agreement with CP results.

The stabilities of ANW and NW were also investigated by constant charge/discharge for 1000 cycles at current density of 8 mA cm⁻² in 1 M Li₂SO₄ solution in potential range between −1.0 and 0 V. The specific capacitance can be retained about 78% for ANW after 1000 cycles, which is about 14% higher than NW, showing the better stability of ANW. The stability of NW electrode was improved by annealing at N₂ atmosphere. It can be ascribed that the annealing process may reinforce the structure of WO₃ nanowires and strengthen the combination between WO₃ film and graphene sheets on the substrate.

3.3. Comparison of Morphologies and Electrochemical Properties of WO₃ Films Prepared by Different Process

The morphologies of WO₃ films prepared from different process were also studied. SEM image of WO₃ film prepared with no graphene sheets is shown in Figure 5(a). It can be seen that WO₃ nanowires grow on the relative smooth surface and most nanowires interconnect with each other to form circular structures, which result in a three-dimensional network with a highly open and porous structures, as shown in inset image of Figure 5(a). Interestingly, SEM image reveals that an individual nanowire is composed of many infinitesimal interconnected nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can provide high flexibility of nanowires and give rise to form circular structure of the film, which is very different from the crystallized nanowires grown on graphene sheets (Figure 1(b)). Figure 5(b) shows the morphology of the film prepared by hydrothermal process without using seed-induced method. Similar WO₃ crystalline nanowires can be seen on the surface, together with a large amount of big size of noncrystallized (or amorphous) phases, which indicates that precoating of nanosized WO₃ seeds on substrate is more beneficial to crystal nucleation and growth.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 5(c) shows the morphology of WO₃ film prepared with no NaCl added in the deposition solution. It can be observed that the size of WO₃ nanowire is not uniform. Most of WO₃ nanowires appear to be aggregated into large dimension of bundles, which indicates that NaCl plays an important role in the formation of dispersive nanowires. It is considered reasonably that such metal ions as Li⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺, which can be intercalated into the crystal structures of tungsten oxide, may be selectively absorbed onto the facet parallel to the -axis of the hexagonal crystals, leading to preferential growth along the -axis. Cl⁻ ions can be absorbed on the surface as the counterpart simultaneously. Thus NaCl acts as capping agent and selectively absorbed onto the crystal planes, resulting in the formation of dispersive uniform WO₃ nanowires. Figure 5(d) shows the cyclic voltammograms of these films on graphite electrodes. The WO₃ nanowires on graphene sheets prepared by seed-induced method exhibits the highest current density among these electrodes, indicating that the preseeded nanosized WO₃, graphene sheets on graphite, and NaCl capping agent are necessary for the formation of good crystallized WO₃ nanowires with a high specific surface area of the electrode.

3.4. Capacitive Performance of PANI/MnO₂ Positive Electrode

PANI/MnO₂ composite film on graphite (PM) was selected for the positive electrode to match the above ANW negative electrode for assembling asymmetric supercapacitor with Li₂SO₄ as electrolyte. Figure 6(a) presents cyclic voltammogram of PM in 1 M Li₂SO₄ aqueous electrolyte. PM composite electrode displays charge storage abilities in potential range from −0.2 and 0.6 V at a high scan rate of 20 mV s⁻¹. The charge/discharge process on PANI/MnO₂ composite electrode can be expressed as [33]Figure 6(b) shows the CP profiles collected at different current densities. The CP curves show linear profiles and nearly symmetric in potential range from −0.2 to 0.6 V, which is a typical pseudocapacitive behavior. The area specific capacitance of PM is calculated to be at 1.16 F cm⁻².

(a)

(b)

3.5. Asymmetric Capacitor’s Performance

To evaluate the performance of ANW electrode in supercapacitors, an asymmetric supercapacitor was assembled by using PM and ANW as positive and negative electrodes, respectively, and with Li₂SO₄/PVA gel as the electrolyte as well as separator. From cyclic voltammograms of ANW and PM, the stable potential range for ANW is between −1.0 and 0 V, and PM is between 0 and 0.6 V. Thus the cell voltage of asymmetric capacitor can be extended to 1.6 V, which originate from the sum of positive and negative potential range.

In order to obtain a stable 1.6 V operating potential window, it is necessary to balance the charges stored at the positive and negative electrodes. The stored charges () are related to the specific capacitance (), the potential window (), and the mass () of the electrode according to [34]. On the basis of the specific capacitance values of the two materials and the potential windows, the mass ratio between PM and ANW of 1 : 2 was selected in the asymmetric supercapacitor cell. The fabricated asymmetric supercapacitor of PM//ANW shows a stable potential window up to 1.6 V in Figure 7(a). The typical galvanostatic charge/discharge profiles of the supercapacitor between 0.0 and 1.6 V at different current densities are shown in Figure 7(b). The charge/discharge curves are nearly symmetric linear, indicating a typical pseudocapacitive behavior of supercapacitor. The specific capacitance of the PM//ANW capacitor is calculated to be 2.5 F cm⁻³ at a current density of 1 mA cm⁻² (the total volume of the cell is about 0.1 cm³). It is about 94.7%, 80%, and 64% of its initial value at 1 mA cm⁻² when charged/discharged at 2, 5 and 10 mA cm⁻², respectively, showing that the capacitor has good rate capability. The energy density of the asymmetric capacitor is found to be 0.88 mWh cm⁻³ at power density of 9.16 mW cm⁻³, calculated by the equation , where is the area specific capacitance of electrodes and is the operating voltage of the cell [34].

(a)

(b)

4. Conclusion

WO₃ nanowires grown on graphene sheets partially exfoliated from graphite foil exhibited good pseudocapacitive performance in the negative potential window of −1.0 to 0 V versus SCE in 1 M Li₂SO₄ aqueous solution. It was found that precoating of nanosized WO₃ seeds and graphene sheets on substrate is more beneficial to crystal nucleation and growth, resulting in the formation of uniform crystallized WO₃ nanowires on substrate. The asymmetric capacitor assembled with WO₃ nanowires and PANI/MnO₂ composite as negative and positive electrodes can be operated over a large cell voltage of 1.6 V and displays a high energy density of 0.88 mWh cm⁻³ at power density of 9.16 mW cm⁻³. With these properties, WO₃ nanowires on graphene sheets can be a promising negative electrode material for asymmetry capacitors.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge Liaoning Key Laboratory of Functional Textile Materials and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics for the technical support of SEM, XRD, TEM, and BET measurements. The authors acknowledge financial support by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project no. 51343002) and Liaoning Province new Ph.D. start-up fund (Project no. 20131039).

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Copyright © 2017 Bo Liu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Journal of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials for Efficient Energy Conversion and Storage

WO3 Nanowires on Graphene Sheets as Negative Electrode for Supercapacitors

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Section

2.1. Preparation of Tungsten Oxide Nanowires on Graphene Sheets

2.2. Preparation of PANI/MnO2 for Positive Electrode

2.3. Fabrication of Asymmetric Supercapacitor Devices

2.4. Characterization

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization

3.2. Capacitive Performance of WO3 Nanowires on Graphene Sheets

3.3. Comparison of Morphologies and Electrochemical Properties of WO3 Films Prepared by Different Process

3.4. Capacitive Performance of PANI/MnO2 Positive Electrode

3.5. Asymmetric Capacitor’s Performance

4. Conclusion

Competing Interests

Acknowledgments

References

Copyright

WO₃ Nanowires on Graphene Sheets as Negative Electrode for Supercapacitors

2.2. Preparation of PANI/MnO₂ for Positive Electrode

3.2. Capacitive Performance of WO₃ Nanowires on Graphene Sheets

3.3. Comparison of Morphologies and Electrochemical Properties of WO₃ Films Prepared by Different Process

3.4. Capacitive Performance of PANI/MnO₂ Positive Electrode