Controlled and Prolonged Release Systems of Urea from Micro- and Nanomaterials as an Alternative for Developing a Sustainable Agriculture: A Review

Table 1

Prolonged and controlled release systems.

Materials	Active agent	Application	Release time	Encapsulation efficiency	Morphology	References
Wheat gluten	Diltiazem hydrochloride	Drug release	10 days and 8 days with the mix with PEG	72.8% for wheat gluten and 96.7% for the mix of wheat gluten and PEG 95/05	Spheres	[44]
Gelatin	Fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-D)	Drug load and delivery	144 hours	86.4% for FITC-D of 4 kDa and 93.3 for FITC-D of 20 kDa	Smooth spheres	[45]
Chitosan/casein	Chloramphenicol	Drug release	25 hours	Not reported	Spheres	[46]
Silk fibroin	Indomethacin	Drug release	Over 2 days	10.23%	Smooth spheres	[47]
Wheat gluten	Fish oil	Fish oil stability	120 minutes	81.8%	Spheres	[48]
Zein	Essential oils (thymol and carvacrol)	Antioxidant and antrimicrobial activity	Specific time is not reported	More than 50%	Spheres	[49]
Albumin	Therapeutic agents	Drug release	Specific time is not reported	Not reported	Not reported	[50]
Casein	Heat-sensitive or/and acid-sensitive compounds	Freezing stability	Not reported	Not reported	Spheres	[51]
Zein	Thymol	Antimicrobial agent	Not reported	Over 80%	Spheres	[52]
Whey protein	Curcumin	Drug release	48 hours	88.3–96.34%	Spheres	[53]
Wheat glutenins	Urea	Controlled release fertilizers	12 hours	88%	Spheres	[34]
Wheat gluten	Urea	Prolonged-release fertilizer	8 hours	97%	Porous structure (pastille)	[33]