Research Article
Factors Associated with High Sodium Intake Assessed from 24-hour Urinary Excretion and the Potential Effect of Energy Intake
Table 1
General characteristics of the study participants stratified by sodium intake.
| | Parameters | All participants () | Sodium <2000 mg (n = 294) | Sodium ≥2000 mg (n = 733) | value |
| | Sex, n (%) | | | | | | Male | 406 | 80 (19.7%) | 326 (80.3%) | <0.001 |
| | Age, n (%) | | | | | | 20–29 years | 226 | 65 (28.8%) | 161 (71.2%) | 0.754 | | 30–39 years | 451 | 126 (28.2%) | 324 (71.8%) | | 40–49 years | 191 | 60 (31.4%) | 131 (68.6%) | | 50–59 years | 159 | 42 (4.1%) | 117 (11.4%) |
| | Ethnicity, n (%) | | | | | | Malay | 873 | 240 (27.5%) | 633 (72.5%) | 0.023 | | Chinese | 51 | 18 (35.3%) | 33 (64.7%) | | Indian | 29 | 8 (27.6%) | 21 (72.4%) | | Bumiputera Sabah | 54 | 16 (29.6%) | 38 (70.4%) | | Bumiputera Sarawak | 20 | 12 (60.0%) | 8 (40.0%) |
| | Marital status, n (%) | | | | | | Single | 206 | 62 (30.1%) | 144 (69.9%) | 0.338 |
| | Education level, n (%) | | | | | | Secondary and below | 225 | 54 (24.0%) | 171 (76.0%) | 0.171 | | Form 6/diploma | 413 | 128 (31.0%) | 285 (69.0%) | | College/university | 380 | 111 (29.2%) | 269 (70.8%) |
| | Diabetes, n (%) | | | | | | Yes | 47 | 11 (23.4%) | 37 (76.6%) | 0.250 |
| | Hypertension, n (%) | | | | | | Yes | 93 | 21 (22.6%) | 72 (77.4%) | 0.520 |
| | BMI (kg/m2), n (%) | | | | | | Obese/overweight | 622 | 152 (24.4%) | 470 (75.6%) | <0.001 |
| | Abdominal obese, n (%) | | | | | | Yes | 586 | 149 (25.4%) | 437 (74.6%) | 0.007 |
| | 24 hr urine, mean ± SD | | | | | | Sodium (mg/d) | 2860.14 ± 1369.38 | 1459.83 ± 386.68 | 3421.79 ± 1210.39 | <0.001 | | Creatinine (mg/L) | 1044.51 ± 494.59 | 703.30 ± 382.81 | 1181.36 ± 467.66 | 0.034 | | Volume (mL) | 1240.49 ± 555.53 | 1028.16 ± 501.36 | 1325.65 ± 534 | <0.001 |
| | Blood pressure, Mean ± SD | | | | | | Systolic BP (mmHg) | 121.23 ± 17.29 | 119.24 ± 18.28 | 122.04 ± 16.83 | 0.019 | | Diastolic BP (mmHg) | 76.94 ± 11.18 | 75.94 ± 11.18 | 77.35 ± 11.17 | 0.068 |
| | Dietary intake, mean ± SD | | | | | | Energy (kcal/day) | 1794.31 ± 526.47 | 1687.28 ± 574.65 | 1837.35 ± 499.79 | <0.001 | | Carbohydrate (g/d) | 224.49 ± 77.87 | 212.26 ± 77.81 | 229.41 ± 77.28 | <0.001 | | Protein (g/d) | 74.88 ± 41.26 | 67.04 ± 32.53 | 78.09 ± 43.91 | <0.001 | | Fat (g/d) | 64.88 ± 24.77 | 61.75 ± 30.25 | 66.15 ± 22.09 | <0.001 | | Sodium (mg/d) | 2772.97 ± 1045.85 | 2561.43 ± 1065 | 2859.05 ± 1025.93 | <0.001 | | Calcium (mg/d) | 494.95 ± 273.26 | 484.39 ± 317.40 | 499.19 ± 253.46 | 0.434 | | Potassium (mg/d) | 1182.70 ± 494.21 | 1141.37 ± 571.67 | 1199.32 ± 458.77 | 0.091 |
|
|
Significant at value < 0.001. Significant at value < 0.05. |
