SWA (Inner View® Research Software 4.0)/triceps muscle
IC, using Sensormedics Vmax-29N
REE
At least 30 min of IC + SWA (data collected during the first 5–10 min excluded for allowing the acclimatisation, experiment conducted at thermos neutral environment and in the absence of external stimuli)
(i) Women: (1) Mean difference: 230.1 ± 690.4 kJ·d−1 () (2) Bland–Altman: LOA (1125; 1582 kJ·d−1) (3) Pitman’s test: R = 0.034 () (4) Lin’s CCC: (95% CI) 0.579 (0.467; 0.691) (ii) Men: (1) Mean difference: 451.9 ± 937.2 kJ·d−1 () (2) Bland–Altman: LOA (1381; 2280 kJ·d−1) (3) Pitman’s test: R = −0.221 () (4) Lin’s CCC: (95% CI) 0.583 (0.397; 0.768)
Poor agreement between SWA and IC for the assessment of REE
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 6.1)/right upper arm over the triceps muscle)
IC, using Deltatrac II
REE
At least 30 min of IC + SWA (data collected during the first 5–10 min excluded for allowing the acclimatisation, experiment conducted under standardized condition, after an overnight fast and after a resting period of at least 30 min)
Data available for 63 subjects Mean difference: 870.2 ± 991.6 kJ·d−1 () Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.826 ()
The overestimation of REE by SWA can be a limitation in physiological studies
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 6.1)/right upper arm over the triceps muscle
IC, using Deltatrac II
REEIC and SEESWA
REEIC: experiment conducted under standardized conditions, after an overnight fast and after a resting period of at least 30 min, with the request not to smoke prior the experiment SEESWA: EE continuously measured for 3 d. SEEep and SEElp data were analysed if the duration was at least 35 min, with the exclusion of the first and the last 5 min
(i) SEEep: (1) Mean difference: 514.6 ± 895.4 kJ·d−1 () (2) Linear regression: R2 = 0.705 () (3) Bland–Altman: 6.2% of the values were outside the LOA (−715; −318 kJ·d−1) (ii) SEElp: (1) Mean difference: 569 ± 868.6 kJ·d−1 () (2) Linear regression: R2 = 0.717 () (3) Bland–Altman: 6.2% of the participants were outside the LOA (−761; −377 kJ·d−1)
The assessment of SEE for 3 nights for the estimation of REE is a promising approach in clinical practice, but authors suggest to subtract 10% of the assessed SEE with the SWA to predict REE in normal-weight, overweight, and obese individuals
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 4.0)/right arm over the triceps muscle at the midpoint between the acromion and olecranon processes
IC, using Sensormedics Vmax-29N
REE
At least 20 min of IC + SWA (data collected during the first 5–10 min excluded for allowing the acclimatisation, experiment conducted after an overnight fast and after a resting period of 30 min)
Mean difference: −288.7 kJ·d−1 Bland–Altman: LOA (−63; 89 kJ·d−1) Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.88 ()
Specific algorithms for obese individuals are needed
SWA/Inner View® Research Software 6.1/right upper arm over the triceps muscle
IC, using Quark CPET, COSMED
REE
30 min of IC + SWA (data collected during the first 10 min excluded for allowing the acclimatisation, experiment conducted under standardized condition, after an overnight fast)
Women: Mean difference: −173.2 kJ·d−1 () Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.58 () Pearson’s regression analysis: R = −0.54 () Men: Mean difference: −37.7 kJ·d−1 () Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.73 () Pearson’s regression analysis: R = −0.11 ()
Despite the good accuracy showed by SWA, results were not more accurate than the established estimation equations. SWA does not represent a reliable alternative for measuring REE in obese subjects
EE during physical exercises (experiments conducted in a laboratory)
SWA (model MF-SW, Inner View® Research Software 7.0 and 8.1)/center triceps brachii muscle, midway between the elbow and the shoulder
IC, Oxycon™ Mobile portable system (CareFusion Inc., San Diego, CA)
PAEE
1 structured routine (90 min) and 1 semistructured routine (64 min), both including a wide range of activities of sedentary/light, moderate, and vigorous intensity. Participants were instructed to consume only water for at least 3 hours prior to the test
Structured routine: Mean difference SWA 7.0-IC: 241.8 kJ ( in both women and men) Mean difference SWA 8.0-IC: 187.4 kJ ( in both women and men) ICC SWA 7.0-IC: 0.89 ICC SWA 8.0-IC: 0.89 Bland–Altman: no proportional bias for both SWA versions Semistructured routine: Mean difference SWA 7.0-IC: 206.7 kJ () Mean difference SWA 8.0-IC: 51.9 kJ () ICC SWA 7.0-IC: 0.66 ICC SWA 8.0 IC: 0.90 Bland–Altman: narrower limits of agreement for SWA 8.0
Both SWA 7.0 and 8.1 overestimated EE during the structured routine when compared with IC but during the semistructured routine SWA 8.0 provided an estimate of EE not different than that of IC, showing a greater applicability in living conditions
Fitbit Charge 3-axis accelerometer (Fitbit Inc., San Francisco, California, USA)/wrist
IC, using Parvo TrueOne 2400 (Parvo Medics, East Sandy, UT, USA)
PAEE
Two walking stages at 80.5 m/min and 107.3 m/min and two running stages at 134.1 m/min and 160.9 m/min, with 5 min rest periods between each stage
Walk at 80.5 m/min: Overestimation of PAEE by 21.4% () Walk at 107.3 m/min: Underestimation of PAEE by 11.2% () Jog at 134.1 m/min: Underestimation of PAEE by 13.7% () Jog at 160.9 m/min: Underestimation of PAEE by 22.5% ()
Caution should be exercised when considering caloric expenditure data from Fitbit Charge
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 6.1)/right arm over the triceps muscle at the midpoint between the acromion and olecranon processes
IC, using K4b2 COSMED
PAEE
Brief warm-up period followed by two 10 min stages of rowing at 50% (low intensity) and 70% (moderate intensity) of each subject’s predetermined VO2 max wearing SWA + K4b2 COSMED, with a 20 min rest between each stage, in which food consumption was forbidden (at least 3 h fast and at least 3 h abstention from any physical activity before the test, SWA is worn for 15 min before data collection)
50% VO2max: Mean difference: 38 ± 385 kJ·min−1 () Bland–Altman: LOA (−11; 4 kJ·min−1) Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.82 () 70% VO2max: No significant difference: () Bland–Altman: LOA (4; 5 kJ·min−1) Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.87 ()
Specific algorithms to improve the accuracy of SWA to estimate EE at various intensities are needed
80 min, semistructured activity protocol, performing ≥12 activities from a list of 21 choices, including sedentary activities, household activities, and ambulatory and cycling activities
Underestimation of PAEE by 26%
ActiGraph underestimations of PAEE were most likely driven by the periods of time during the protocol in which the subjects performed household activities
3 km/h, 0% incline: Mean deviations from IC: 81.19 ± 23.81% Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.79 () 4 km/h, 0% incline: Mean deviations from IC: 78.18% ± 33.96% Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.63 () 5 km/h, 5% incline: Mean deviations from IC −7.88% ± 16.07% Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.74 ()
Good accuracy of SWA for measuring EE in individuals with diabetes during walking under controlled conditions, probably obtained thanks to the reasonable duration of the protocol (not too short)
RT3 triaxial accelerometer)/and TriTrac-R3D Research ergometer (containing 3 accelerometers)/waist line above each hip
IC, using Sensormedics Vmax-29N
PAEE (calculated as the difference between pre-exercise EE and exercise EE). EERT3 and EE TriTrac-R3D = calculated using Weir’s equation
5 min walking at 2, 3, and 4 km/h, successively, at 4% grade on a motorized treadmill, wearing RT3 and the TriTrac-R3D + Sensormedics Vmax-29N (2 minutes of warming up before initiation of each walking condition, each walking condition separated by a 10 sec period at an intermediate speed). Pre-exercise EE was determined with the subject seated in a comfortable thermal environment, 2 hours after lunch
Data available for 8 subjects RT3: Overestimation of PAEE by 30.6% ± 45.5% () Bland–Altman: LOA (−117; 75 kJ/min) TriTrac-R3D: Overestimation of PAEE by 54.9.0% ± 65.0% () Bland–Altman: LOA (−151; 75 kJ/min)
Mean PAEE did not differ significantly between methods within the range of walking speeds tested. However, there was a trend toward overestimation of PAEE by the TriTrac-R3D
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 4.0)/Triceps muscle
IC, using Sensormedics Vmax-29N
PAEE
5 min pedalling on a cycle ergometer at 60 rpm at a fixed load of 60 watts, 5 min stain stepping on a 16 cm bench, 5 min walking on a motorized treadmill at 3 km/h, wearing SWA + Sensormedics Vmax-29N (experiments conducted 2 h after lunch)
Cycle ergometer: Mean difference: 3.8 ± 6.5 kJ·min−1 ICC: 0.18 (95% CI = −0.20; 0.53) Stepping: Mean difference: 7.1 ± 7.5 kJ·min−1 ICC: 0.06 (95% CI = −0.32; 0.43) Treadmill: Mean difference: 7.6 ± 8.8 kJ·min−1 ICC: 0.18 (95% CI = −0.40; 0.45) Bland–Altman: no agreement for all the three activities
Specific algorithms for obese individuals are needed
Kenz Lifecorder EX accelerometer (LC; Suzuken Co. Ltd., Nagoya, Japan)/midline of the right thigh on a belt at the level of the waist
IC, by using Parvo Medics TrueOne 2400, Sandy, UT
PAEE
Six 5-minute stages of walking on a treadmill starting at 1.5 mph and increasing to 2.0 mph, 2.5 mph, 3.0 mph, 3.5 mph, and 4.0 mph while grade was constant at 0% for the duration of the test
Mean difference in all the samples 1.5 mph: 32.6 kJ·min−1 () 2.0 mph: 15.5 kJ·min−1 () 3.0 mph: 13.4 ·min−1 () 3.5 mph: 18.0 kJ·min−1 () 4 mph: 12.6 kJ·min−1 () Overweight BMI: Significant underestimation at speeds of 1.5 mph (), 2.0 mph (), 2.5 mph (), 3.0 mph (), and 4.0 mph () Obese BMI: Significantly underestimation at all speeds except 3.0 mph (1.5 mph (), 2.0 mph (), 2.5 mph (), 3.5 mph (), and 4.0 mph ())
The device does not offer the accuracy needed to provide precise feedback on EE for individuals with varying BMI levels
SWA Mini (Inner View® Research) Software 7.0)/upper arm
IC, using Parvo Medics TrueOne® 2400 Metabolic Measurement System
PAEE
Two 5 d experimental conditions separated by a minimum 7 d washout: SIT condition for 8 h/d (seated) or STAND-SIT condition for 8 h/d (alternating between a standing and seated work posture every 30 min). Experiments conducted at a controlled temperature, after a fasted state ≥10 h and after abstention from alcohol, caffeine, and moderate and vigorous physical activities for 24 h before the test
Data available for 14 subjects STAND: Mean difference: −0.4 ± 0.7 kJ·min−1 () Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.73 () Bland–Altman: LOA (−1.10; 1.28 kJ·min−1) SIT: Mean difference: 0.5 ± 0.7 kJ·min−1 () Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.82 () Bland–Altman: LOA (−1.40; 0.51 kJ·min−1)
SWA can provide reasonable EE estimates during STAND, while PAEE during SIT showed a modest overestimation. Further modifications to the SWA mini algorithms are required to improve the accuracy of EE
Actical physical activity monitor omnidirectional accelerometer (Philips Respironics, Inc., Bend, Ore., USA)/waist or wrist SWA/upper part of the dominant arm IDEEA accelerometer (MiniSun LLC, Fresno, Calif., USA, five biaxial accelerometer nodes)/5 sensors that are placed on the body: 1 on the chest, 2 on the front of the thighs, and 2 on the feet
DLW
TEE and AEE
TEE measured by DLW for 2 weeks and by accelerometers for 1 week (only the week that corresponded with wearing the activity monitors was used for analysis). AEEDLW was calculated as TEE − (RMR + (0.1 × TEE)), where IC was measured with Deltatrac II metabolic car
The performance of the Actical was poor, while the IDEEA accurately estimated AEE when compared with DLW, and both the Sensewear and the IDEEA produced relatively accurate estimates of TEE
SWA (Inner View® Research Software 6.1 and 5.1)/over the right triceps muscle
DLW
TEEDLW (kJ·d−1) and AEEDLW (calculated as 0.9 TEE − RMR measured by IC on a Deltatrac II respiratory gas analyser); TEESWA (kJ·d−1) and AEESWA (calculated as 0.9 TEE − RMR estimated using the Harris–Benedict equation)
TEE and AEE measured by DLW and SWA for 2 weeks
TEE SWA 6.1: Mean difference: 117 ± 941 kJ·d−1 ICC: 0.896 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.893 () Bland–Altman: all values except one with LOA of 1882 kJ TEE SWA 5.1: Mean difference: 105 ± 883 kJ d−1 ICC: 0.904 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.901 () Bland–Altman: all values within LOA of 1766 kJ AEE SWA 6.1 Mean difference: −653 ± 828 kJ·d−1 ICC: 0.643 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.760 () Bland–Altman: all values except one within LOA of 1657 kJ AEE SWA 5.1: Mean difference: −452 ± 774 kJ·d−1 ICC: 0.720 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.786 () Bland–Altman: all values except two within LOA of 1548 kJ
Measures of TEE from DLW and the SWA were strongly correlated and demonstrated strong agreement, and the Bland–Altman analysis revealed no systematic bias. SWA underestimated AEE but measures of AEE from DLW and SWA were strongly correlated and demonstrated moderate agreement, and the Bland–Altman analysis revealed no systematic bias
RT3 triaxial accelerometer and TriTrac-R3D research ergometer (containing 3 accelerometers)/waist line above each hip
DLW
PAEE (PAEEDLW = TEE × 0.9 −RMRIC, PAEERT3 and PAEE TriTrac-R3D = PAEE/predicted RMR × RMRIC)
PAEE measured for 2 weeks
RT3 Mean difference: −284.5 kJ·d−1 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.67 () Bland–Altman: LOA (−1610,607 kJ·d−1) TriTrac-R3D: Data available for 12 subjects Mean difference: −401.7 kJ·d−1 Pearson’s correlation: R = 0.36 () Bland–Altman: LOA (−3711; 2469 kJ·d−1)
RT3 provides more accurate estimations than TriTrac-R3D. RT3 is a valuable instrument for the evaluation of AEE at group level, but there is a need to compensate for the underestimation in free-living conditions. At individual level, both the accelerometers present some limitations
TracmorD triaxial accelerometer system (Maastricht, the Netherlands)
DLW
TEE, PAL calculated as TEE divided by SMR (measured by an overnight state in a respiration chamber), AEE calculated as (0.9 × TEE) −SMR, AEEkg calculated as AEE/BMI. Prediction equations for TracmorD : AEE = 24.113 × MCounts/day + 8.5231 PAL = 0.3218 × MCounts/day + 1.2766
PAL and AEE measured from TracmorD and DLW
47% of the variance of PAL and 58% of the variance of AEEkg were explained by the prediction equations Bias AEEkg = 17%; PAL = −1%
Two published equations derived with TracmorD allow valid assessment of physical activity in overweight and obese subjects
AEE: activity energy expenditure; DLW: doubly labelled water; EE: energy expenditure; EP: early uninterrupted phase of sleep; IC: indirect calorimetry; LP = late uninterrupted phase of sleep; PA: physical activity; PAL: physical activity level; REE: resting energy expenditure; RMR: resting metabolic rate; SEE: sleep energy expenditure; SIT: sitting; SMR: sleeping metabolic rate; STAND: standing; SWA: SenseWear Armband; TEE: total energy expenditure; VO2 max: maximal oxygen uptake.
