Vitamin D Deficiency Is Common in Ghana despite Abundance of Sunlight: A Multicentre Comparative Cross-Sectional Study

Table 3

Binary logistic regression analysis predicted the odds ratio for risk factors of vitamin D deficiency among study participants.

Variables	Frequency (n = 500)	Univariate (95% CI)	value	Multivariate (95% CI)	value
Knowledge of vit D foods
Yes	32	Referent		Referent
No	468	2.93 (0.15–0.80)	0.014	4.39 (1.69–11.44)	0.002
Milk intake
Not taken	68	Referent		Referent
Daily	31	0.49 (0.28–0.84)	0.009	1.77 (0.92–3.14)	0.088
Weekly	152	0.94 (0.41–2.22)	0.824	2.63 (1.05–6.59)	0.040
Monthly	249	0.95 (0.41–2.22)	0.902	2.11 (1.29–3.47)	0.003
Salmon (oily fish)
Not taken		—		—
Daily	185	Referent		Referent
Weekly	221	2.08 (1.38–3.12)	<0.001	1.78 (1.09–2.90)	0.022
Monthly	94	2.43 (1.46–4.04)	0.001	1.96 (1.06–3.64)	0.032
Fruit/vegetable intake
Not taken		—		—
Daily	50	Referent		Referent
Weekly	254	2.12 (1.01–4.44)	0.046	2.45 (1.10–5.43)	0.028
Monthly	196	6.32 (2.98–13.37)	<0.001	7.02 (3.08–16.05)	<0.001
Interleukin-10
Normal (<10 pg/mL)	419	Referent		Referent
High (≥10 pg/mL)	81	3.47 (1.97–6.13)	<0.001	3.15 (1.65–6.01)	<0.001
Interferon-gamma
Normal (<8 pg/mL)	155	Referent		Referent
High (≥8 pg/mL)	345	13.10 (8.53–20.12)	0.001	10.77 (6.08–19.06)	<0.001

value <0.05 = statistically significant; vit D = vitamin D; for multivariate analysis all other factors such as hemodynamics, biochemistry parameters, age, and weight were adjusted.