Update on Pathophysiology, Treatment, and Complications of Carcinoid Syndrome

Table 1

The differential cause of worsening diarrhoea in patients with carcinoid syndrome.

Cause	Investigation to confirm	Treatment
Post-bowel surgery; (i) Bile salt malabsorption; (ii) Short bowel syndrome	SeCHAT scan; CT enterography, biochemical factors: low magnesium and low urinary sodium	Bile acid binding resins; PPI, loperamide, codeine; IV fluids
Post-pancreatic resection; (i) Pancreatic exocrine Insufficiency; (ii) Bacterial overgrowth	Faecal elastase; Breath tests; Breath tests for glucose and lactulose	Pancreatic exocrine replacement therapy; Antibiotics
Irritable bowel syndrome	Exclusion of other causes	FODMAP diet; Probiotics
Other diagnoses; (i) Inflammatory bowel disease; (ii) Microscopic colitis