|
| Virus | Family | Mechanism of the T1D induction | Model system |
|
| Human cytomegalovirus | Herpesviridae | Persistent infection [102] | Lymphocytes and autoantibodies (clinical study) |
| Molecular mimicry [103] | GAD65-specific T-cells cross-react with a peptide of the HCMV (in vitro) |
| Bystander activation [104] | Activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells (clinical study) |
|
| Parvovirus | Parvoviridae | Molecular mimicry [105] | Elevated serum anti-parvovirus B19 IgM and autoantibodies (clinical study) |
| Induction of autoimmunity [106] | Prolonged autoimmune alterations (clinical study) |
|
| Rotavirus | Reoviridae | Molecular mimicry [107] | Correlation in the proliferative responses of T-cells to the similar peptides in rotavirus and islet autoantigens (in vitro) |
|
| Rubella virus | Togaviridae | Congenital infection [108] | Children with congenital rubella-autoantibodies (clinical study) |
| Molecular mimicry [109] | T-cell response to viral and beta cell peptides (in vitro) |
|
|
Mumps virus | Paramyxoviridae | Loss of tolerance toward β-cells [110] | Human insulinoma cell line infected with mumps (in vitro) |
| Molecular mimicry [111] | Antibodies in serum of vaccinated and nonvaccinated children (clinical study) |
|
| Human endogenous retrovirus | Retroviridae | Influence of the immune response [112] | Presence of antigen in T-cell subsets of patients (clinical study) |
|
| Human parechovirus | Picornaviridae | Induction of autoimmunity [113] | Stool samples and autoantibodies (clinical study) |
|
| Echovirus | Picornaviridae | Molecular mimicry [114] | Echovirus 9 isolated from baby was destructive for human islets (in vitro) |
|
|
Coxsackievirus | Picornaviridae | Direct cellular injury [115] | CVB4 and SJL/J mice (in vivo) |
| Delayed viral clearance [116] | Serum of prediabetic children (clinical study) |
| Molecular mimicry [117] | Autoantibodies in human blood samples (clinical study) |
| Bystander activation [118] | CVB4 and NOD and BDC2.5 mice (in vivo) |
| Antibody-dependent enhancement [119] | CVB4 and human serum-PBMC and monocyte (in vitro) |
| Phagocytosis of infected -cells [120] | CVB3-infected human and porcine pancreatic islets (in vitro) |
| Loss of regulatory T-cells [121] | CVB4-E2 infection of human thymic epithelial cells (in vitro) |
| Increased intestine permeability [122] | Virus presence in the small intestine biopsy samples |
| Disruption in -cells neogenesis [123] | CVB4-E2 or CVB4-JVB and SJL/J mice |
|
